Class | Subject | Book | Chapter | Session | Questions covered |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
XI | Political Science | Indian Constitution at Work (NCERT) | 8 – Local Governments | 2026-27 | 9 of 9 |
Chapter at a glance
Topic | Key points |
|---|---|
Local government | Government at village and district level, closest to people |
History | Community Development Programme (1952); Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) — three-tier Panchayati Raj; P.K. Thungon Committee (1989) |
73rd Amendment (1992) | Three-tier panchayats; Gram Sabha; elections every 5 years by State Election Commission; reservation for SC/ST and one-third for women; State Finance Commission; 29 subjects (Eleventh Schedule) |
74th Amendment | Urban local bodies (municipalities, corporations); Twelfth Schedule |
Implementation | Over 32 lakh elected representatives; large number of women and Dalit leaders; limits of funds and powers |
Exercise Questions
Constitution of India visualised village panchayats as units of self-government. Think over the situation described in the following statements and explain how do these situations strengthen or weaken the panchayats in becoming units of self-government.
Answer
- Government of a State has allowed a big company to establish a huge steel plant. Many villages would be adversely affected by the steel plant. Gram Sabha of one of the affected villages passed a resolution that before establishing any big industries in the region, village people must be consulted and their grievances should be redressed.
- The government has decided that 20 % of all its expenditure would be done through the panchayats.
- A village panchayat kept on demanding funds for a building for village school, the government officials turned down their proposal saying that funds are allocated for certain other schemes and cannot be spent otherwise.
- The government divided a village Dungarpur into two and made a part of village Jamuna and Sohana. Now village Dungarpur has ceased to exist in government’s books.
- A village panchayat observed that water sources of their region are depleting fast. They decided to mobilise village youth to do some voluntary work and revive the old village ponds and wells.
Answer
- Strengthens — the Gram Sabha asserts its right to be consulted on decisions affecting the village; this promotes participatory self-government.
- Strengthens — panchayats get substantial funds to plan and implement programmes.
- Weakens — the panchayat cannot decide its own priorities; funds are tied to schemes chosen by officials, so it depends on the bureaucracy.
- Weakens — the state changed the village unilaterally without consulting its people; the panchayat of Dungarpur lost its existence and identity.
- Strengthens — the panchayat takes initiative, mobilises people and uses local resources to solve local problems.
Strengthen: (a), (b), (e). Weaken: (c) tied funds and bureaucratic control, (d) unilateral reorganisation without consultation.
Suppose you are entrusted to evolve a local government plan of a State, what powers would you endow to the village panchayats to function as units of self-government? Mention any five powers and the justification in two lines for each of them for giving those powers.
Answer
Answer
- Planning village development — people know local needs best; plans made by them will be relevant and accepted.
- Raising taxes and fees (property tax, market fees) — own revenue makes panchayats financially independent and accountable.
- Control over primary schools and health centres, including supervising teachers and health staff — local monitoring improves attendance and quality.
- Management of local natural resources — water bodies, common lands, minor forest produce — so that resources are conserved and benefit the village.
- Selection of beneficiaries for welfare schemes through the Gram Sabha (housing, pensions, ration cards) — ensures transparency and reaches the needy.
- Approval for land acquisition and large projects affecting the village — protects people’s interests and livelihood.
Village planning, power to tax, control over schools and health centres, management of local resources, selection of welfare beneficiaries (and consent for land acquisition), each making self-government real and accountable.
What are the provisions for the reservations for the socially disadvantaged groups as per the 73rd amendment? Explain how these provisions have changed the profile of the leadership at the village level.
Answer
Answer
Provisions
- Seats at all three levels are reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population.
- One-third of all seats are reserved for women (many states have raised this to 50 %), including one-third of the seats reserved for SCs and STs.
- One-third of the posts of chairpersons (Sarpanch, etc.) are reserved for women; chairpersons’ posts are also reserved for SCs/STs.
- States may also provide reservation for Other Backward Classes.
Change in leadership
- Lakhs of women, Dalits and Adivasis have become elected representatives and heads of panchayats; the leadership is no longer monopolised by upper-caste, landed men.
- Women leaders have gained confidence, voice and decision-making experience (e.g. the Vengaivasal sarpanch who challenged the Collector).
- Panchayats have taken up issues like water, schools and sanitation.
- Challenges remain: in some places husbands act for women (“sarpanch pati”), and dominant groups resist.
Reservation for SCs/STs by population, one-third (often 50 %) for women including chairperson posts, and optional OBC quotas; this brought lakhs of women, Dalits and Adivasis into village leadership, though resistance remains.
What were the main differences between the local governments before 73rd amendment and after that amendment?
Answer
Answer
Before the 73rd Amendment | After the 73rd Amendment (1992) |
|---|---|
Local government was a state subject with no constitutional status | Panchayats got constitutional status |
Elections were irregular; bodies were often superseded for long periods | Elections every five years compulsory; if dissolved, elections within six months |
Structure varied from state to state | Uniform three-tier structure (village, block, district) in most states |
Little representation of women and weaker sections | Reservation for SCs/STs and one-third for women |
Elections conducted by state governments | Independent State Election Commission |
No assured funds | State Finance Commission to recommend sharing of finances |
No defined functions | 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule |
Gram Sabha not mandatory | Gram Sabha made compulsory |
Before: no constitutional status, irregular elections, varied structures, little representation. After: constitutional status, regular elections by SEC, three tiers, reservations, Finance Commission, 29 subjects and compulsory Gram Sabha.
Read the following conversation. Write in two hundred words your opinion about the issues raised in this conversation.
Answer
Alok: Our Constitution guarantees equality between men and women. Reservations in local bodies for women ensure their equal share in power.
Neha: But it is not enough that women should be in positions of power. It is necessary that the budget of local bodies should have separate provision for women.
Jayesh: I don’t like this reservations business. A local body must take care of all people in the village and that would automatically take care of women and their interests.
Answer
I agree with Alok and Neha, and disagree with Jayesh.
Women make up half the population, yet for centuries they were kept out of public decision-making by social customs and patriarchy. Merely guaranteeing equality in law did not bring them into power. Reservation for women in panchayats, as Alok says, has brought lakhs of women into positions of leadership. They have gained confidence and influenced decisions on drinking water, schools, health and sanitation — issues that matter greatly to women.
Neha makes an important point: representation must be backed by resources. A separate provision for women in local budgets (“gender budgeting”) — for maternal health, girls’ education, safety, self-help groups and livelihood — ensures that women’s needs are actually met rather than pushed aside.
Jayesh’s view that a general local body will “automatically” take care of women is not supported by experience. Before reservations, local bodies were dominated by upper-caste men, and women’s concerns were ignored. Special measures are needed until real equality is achieved.
Therefore, both reservation and dedicated budgets are needed for women’s empowerment, along with education and changes in social attitudes so that women can exercise power independently.
Agree with Alok and Neha: reservation gives women a real share in power and gender budgets ensure their needs are funded; Jayesh is wrong because general bodies historically ignored women.
Read the provisions of the 73rd Amendment. Which of the following concerns does this amendment address?
Answer
- Fear of replacement makes representatives accountable to the people.
- The dominant castes and feudal landlords dominate the local bodies.
- Rural illiteracy is very high. Illiterate people cannot take decisions about the development of the village.
- To be effective the village panchayats need resources and powers to make plans for the village development.
Answer
- Addressed — compulsory elections every five years make representatives accountable.
- Addressed — reservations for SCs, STs and women break the domination of dominant castes and landlords.
- Not addressed — the amendment does not deal with literacy, and it rejects the idea that illiterate people cannot govern themselves.
- Addressed — State Finance Commissions and the Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects) give panchayats resources and powers.
It addresses (a), (b) and (d); not (c).
The following are different justifications given in favour of local government. Give them ranking and explain why you attach greater significance to a particular rationale than the others. According to you, on which of these rationales the decision of the Gram panchayat of Vengaivasal village was based? How?
Answer
- Government can complete the projects with lesser cost with the involvement of the local community.
- The development plans made by the local people will have greater acceptability than those made by the government officers.
- People know their area, needs problems and priorities. By collective participation they should discuss and take decisions about their life.
- It is difficult for the common people to contact their representatives of the State or the national legislature.
Answer
Ranking
- (c) — the most important, because it is the essence of democracy and self-government: people have the right and the knowledge to decide about their own lives.
- (b) — plans made by people are more acceptable and therefore more successful.
- (d) — local government is accessible and close to people.
- (a) — cost-saving is useful but is an administrative benefit, not the core democratic reason.
Vengaivasal: the Gram Panchayat’s decision was based mainly on (c) (and also (b)). The state government allotted village land to government employees without consulting the panchayat. The panchayat refused to endorse it because the people of the village had the right to decide about land in their area. It went to the High Court, which upheld the constitutional status of panchayats.
Ranking c, b, d, a — (c) is the essence of self-government. Vengaivasal’s decision rested on (c): the villagers’ right to decide about land in their own area.
Which of the following according to you involve decentralisation? Why are other options not sufficient for decentralisation?
Answer
- To hold election of the Gram Panchayat.
- Decision by the villagers themselves about what policies and programmes are useful for the village.
- Power to call meeting of Gram Sabha.
- A Gram Panchayat receiving the report from the Block Development Officer about the progress of a project started by the State government.
Answer
(b) involves real decentralisation: the power to take decisions is transferred to the people of the village.
The others are not sufficient:
- Elections are necessary, but elected bodies without powers and resources do not mean decentralisation.
- Calling a meeting is a procedural power; it does not give decision-making authority.
- Receiving reports about a state project only keeps the panchayat informed; decisions are still taken at higher levels.
Only (b); elections, the power to call meetings and receiving reports do not by themselves transfer decision-making power.
A student of Delhi University, Raghavendra Parpanna, wanted to study the role of decentralisation in decision making about primary education. He asked some questions to the villagers. A meeting of the Gram Sabha is to be called to discuss what steps should be taken to ensure that every child of the village goes to the school.
Answer
- How would you decide the suitable day for the meeting? Think who would be able to attend / not attend the meeting because of your choice. (i) A day specified by the BDO or the collector (ii) Day of the village haat (iii) Sunday (iv) Naag panchami / sankranti
- What is a suitable venue for the meeting? Why? (i) Venue suggested by the circular of the district collector. (ii) Religious place in the village. (iii) Dalit Mohalla. (iv) Upper caste Tola (v) Village school
- In the Gram Sabha meeting firstly a circular sent by the district collector was read. It suggested what steps should be taken to organise an education rally and what should be its route. The meeting did not discuss about the children who never come to school or about girls’ education, or the condition of the school building and the timing of the school. No women teacher attended the meeting as it was held on Sunday. What do you think about these proceedings as an instance of people’s participation?
- Imagine your class as the Gram Sabha. Discuss the agenda of the meeting and suggest some steps to realise the goal.
Answer
a. I would choose a day decided by the villagers themselves, on which most people, including women, labourers and teachers, can attend.
- A day fixed by the BDO/collector may not suit villagers.
- Haat day: many people (traders, buyers, women) would be busy at the market.
- Sunday: teachers, especially women teachers, may not attend; but many workers are free — a Sunday afternoon could work if teachers are requested in advance.
- Festival days: people would be busy with celebrations.
On balance, a working-day evening after school, or a Sunday decided in consultation with teachers, would allow maximum attendance.
b. The village school is the most suitable venue: it is neutral, open to all castes, religions and genders, and the meeting is about schooling. A religious place, the Dalit mohalla or the upper-caste tola could exclude some groups. The Collector’s chosen venue may not be convenient for villagers.
c. This was not genuine participation. The meeting simply followed the Collector’s circular (top-down), and the real problems — out-of-school children, girls’ education, the building and school timings — were ignored. The absence of women teachers meant important voices were missing. Real participation requires people to set the agenda themselves and include all stakeholders.
d. Agenda: (1) survey of out-of-school children, especially girls and Dalit children; (2) reasons for non-attendance — child labour, distance, timings, lack of toilets; (3) condition of the school building, teachers and midday meals; (4) action plan.
Steps: door-to-door enrolment drive by volunteers; school timings suited to local work cycles; separate toilets for girls; regular midday meals; scholarships and free uniforms; a School Management Committee with parents (including mothers) to monitor attendance and teaching; awareness campaign against child labour and child marriage.
Pick a day and venue (the school) that everyone, including women and teachers, can attend; the described meeting was top-down and not real participation; the agenda should cover out-of-school children, girls, facilities and a community monitoring plan.
Topic checklist
- Importance of local government
- Growth of local government in India
- 73rd and 74th Amendments: main provisions
- Reservations and changing village leadership
- Implementation: funds, powers and problems