NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Themes in Indian History II Chapter 1: Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society

Chapter at a glance

Exercises – Answer in 100–150 words

Answer

1. The Kitab-ul-Hind was written by Al-Biruni in Arabic. It is simple and lucid in language.
2. It is a voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
3. Structure: Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter — beginning with a question, following this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures. Some present-day scholars argue that this almost geometric structure, remarkable for its precision and predictability, owed much to his mathematical orientation.
4. Sources: he relied mainly on Brahmanical Sanskrit texts (the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti), which he had learnt; he also translated Sanskrit works into Arabic.
5. Audience: he probably intended his work for peoples living along the frontiers of the subcontinent.
6. Limitations: as he relied on Brahmanical texts, his account presents the ideal Brahmanical view of Indian society (e.g. of caste), which may not have reflected actual practice.

The Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic by Al-Biruni, has 80 chapters on religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, customs, laws and metrology. Each chapter begins with a question, describes Sanskritic traditions and ends with a comparison with other cultures — a precise structure reflecting his mathematical outlook. It relied mainly on Brahmanical texts and was meant for people on the frontiers of the subcontinent.

Answer

Similarity: both were outsiders and had their own cultural biases; both described cities, social practices (sati, slavery), and the court.

Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan scholar, described India with curiosity, focusing on the new and unfamiliar (coconut, paan, postal system, cities) in a largely descriptive way for the Islamic world. Bernier, a French physician, constantly compared India with Europe and portrayed India as inferior (no private property in land, oppression, decay), writing analytically to influence European readers.

Answer

1. Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns” — towns that owed their existence and survival to the imperial camp. He believed that these cities came into existence when the imperial court moved in and rapidly declined when it moved out.
2. He suggested that they did not have viable social and economic foundations but depended on imperial patronage.
3. He described an urban society without a “middle state” (middle class) — only the very rich nobles and the very poor.

Problems with his view (as historians point out): 1. In reality, there were all kinds of towns: manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towns, sacred centres, pilgrimage towns, etc. Their existence indicates prosperity of merchant communities and professional classes. 2. Merchants were often bound together by strong community or kin ties and were organised into their own caste-cum-occupational bodies. In western India these groups were called mahajans, and their chief, the sheth. In urban centres such as Ahmedabad, the mahajans were collectively represented by the chief of the merchant community, called the nagarsheth. 3. Other urban groups included professional classes such as physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers (pundit or mulla), lawyers (wakil), painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc. Some depended on imperial patronage, others on other patrons or ordinary people.

Thus, Bernier’s picture of camp towns is an over-simplification.

Bernier described Mughal cities as “camp towns” that depended on the imperial camp and declined when it left, with no sound economic base and no middle class. Historians show this was oversimplified: there were manufacturing, trading, port and pilgrimage towns, organised merchant communities (mahajans, sheths, nagarsheth) and professional groups such as physicians, teachers, lawyers, painters and architects.

Answer

1. Slaves were openly sold in markets, like any other commodity, and were regularly exchanged as gifts. When Ibn Battuta reached Sind, he purchased “horses, camels and slaves” as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Multan, he presented the governor with “a slave and horse together with raisins and almonds”.
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq was so happy with the sermon of a preacher named Nasiruddin that he gave him “a hundred thousand tankas and two hundred slaves”.
3. Differentiation among slaves: some female slaves in the service of the Sultan were experts in music and dance; Ibn Battuta enjoyed their performance at the wedding of the Sultan’s sister.
4. Female slaves were employed by the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles (as spies).
5. Slaves were generally used for domestic labour; Ibn Battuta found their services particularly indispensable for carrying women and men on palanquins (dola).
6. The price of slaves, particularly female slaves required for domestic labour, was very low, and most families who could afford it kept at least one or two of them.
7. Most female slaves were captured in raids and expeditions.

These show that slavery was widespread and accepted as a “natural” part of society.

Ibn Battuta shows that slaves were openly sold in markets and given as gifts (he bought slaves for Muhammad bin Tughlaq; the Sultan gave a preacher 200 slaves); slaves were differentiated — some female slaves were skilled musicians and dancers, others spied on nobles; most did domestic labour such as carrying palanquins; and slaves, especially female domestic slaves, were cheap, so most families who could afford it kept one or two.

Answer

1. European travellers often highlighted the treatment of women as a crucial marker of difference between Western and Eastern societies, and Bernier chose sati for detailed description.
2. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.
3. The child sati – his most poignant description is of a young widow at Lahore, about twelve years old, who was sacrificed. “The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive when she approached the dreadful pit; the agony of her mind cannot be described; she trembled and wept bitterly; but three or four Brahmanas, assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling victim toward the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run away, and in that situation the innocent creature was burnt alive.”
4. Elements that drew his attention: the age of the victim, the coercion and force involved, the role of Brahmanas and older women, the cruelty and the absence of choice.
5. Bernier found it difficult to repress his feelings of rage, and used sati to show the oppression of women in India compared with Europe.

Bernier was struck by the coercion involved in sati — while some women went willingly, others were forced. He described a child widow of about twelve at Lahore, trembling and weeping, forced by Brahmanas and an old woman to the pyre, her hands and feet tied, and burnt alive — highlighting her age, the force used and the cruelty of the practice.

Exercises – Short essay (about 250–300 words)

Answer

1. Seeking parallels in other societies – Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. He noted that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised: those of knights and princes; monks, fire-priests and lawyers; physicians, astronomers and other scientists; and peasants and artisans. He wanted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India.
2. He also pointed out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
3. Acceptance of the Brahmanical description – despite his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system (the four varnas — Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra, created from the head, shoulders and hands, thighs and feet of Brahman), he described their origin as in Brahmanical texts.
4. Disapproval of the notion of pollution – he disapproved of the notion of pollution. He remarked that everything which falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity. The sun cleanses the air, and salt in the sea prevents the water from becoming polluted. If it were not so, life on earth would be impossible. The conception of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, was according to him contrary to the laws of nature.
5. Antyaja – he mentioned people outside the varna system — the antyaja (literally “born outside the system”) — like weavers, fishermen, hunters, basket makers, cobblers, who were expected to provide inexpensive labour to peasants and zamindars; also chandalas and others who were not included in any caste, engaged in “impure” tasks like cleaning villages.
6. Limitations – Al-Biruni’s description was deeply influenced by normative Sanskrit texts written by Brahmanas, which laid down the rules of caste from their point of view. In real life the system was not as rigid. E.g. the antyaja were often subjected to social oppression but included within economic networks.

Al-Biruni compared the caste system with four social categories in ancient Persia and with Islamic equality, and accepted the Brahmanical account of four varnas, but rejected the notion of pollution as contrary to the laws of nature (the sun cleanses the air, salt purifies the sea). He described the antyaja and others outside the varna system. His view was shaped by Brahmanical Sanskrit texts, so it was more rigid than actual practice.

Answer

Yes, Ibn Battuta’s account is very useful for understanding 14th-century urban life, though it must be used carefully.

Reasons: 1. Description of cities – he found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities for those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. They were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions. 2. Delhi – he described Delhi as a vast city with a great population, the largest in India; its rampart was unparalleled, with 28 gates (darwaza), such as Budaun darwaza and Mandwi darwaza (grain market). There were storehouses for grain, and arms; a mosque; and a large tank (Hauz-i-Shamsi). 3. Daulatabad – no less in size, rivalling Delhi; it had a market for male and female singers (tarababad), with shops, a mosque and halls. 4. Bazaars – most cities had crowded streets and bright, colourful markets stacked with a wide variety of goods. Bazaars were not only places of economic transactions but also the hub of social and economic activities; most bazaars had a mosque and a temple, and spaces for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers. 5. Agriculture and trade – towns derived a significant part of their wealth from villages, which produced two crops a year due to fertile soil. Indian textiles (cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade, satin) were in great demand in West Asia and South-East Asia; Indian goods were traded at high profits. 6. Communication – the postal system – the state encouraged merchants; trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses. He was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system — horse post (uluq), run by royal horses stationed every four miles, and foot post (dawa), with three stations per mile. The foot post was quicker; it took only 5 days to reach Delhi from Sind (50 days by caravan). 7. Slavery and social life – his descriptions of slaves, nobles, the Sultan’s court and customs.

Limitations: as an outsider and a guest of the Sultan, his accounts may be exaggerated or selective (focused on the elite); he wrote from memory years later; he may not have understood all practices.

Yes. Ibn Battuta describes densely populated, prosperous cities like Delhi (with 28 gates, granaries and a tank) and Daulatabad, colourful bazaars that were centres of social and economic life with mosques, temples and performances, towns’ links to fertile villages, textile trade, inns and an efficient horse and foot postal system, and slavery. However, as an outsider and royal guest writing from memory, his account may be selective, so it must be used with care.

Answer

Bernier’s view of rural society: 1. No private property in land – Bernier believed that in the Mughal Empire the emperor owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles; this had disastrous consequences for the economy and society. Landholders could not pass on their land to their children, so they were averse to any long-term investment in the expansion and improvement of production. 2. Ruined peasantry – the absence of private property had prevented the emergence of a class of “improving” landlords (as in Western Europe) and led to the uniform ruination of agriculture, excessive oppression of the peasantry, and a continuous decline in living standards of all sections except the ruling aristocracy. 3. Description of the countryside – “Of the vast tracts of country constituting the empire of Hindustan, many are little more than sand, or barren mountains, badly cultivated, and thinly peopled”; peasants are “miserable”, and many fled to escape the oppression of governors. 4. Society – Indian society consisted of undifferentiated masses of impoverished people, subjugated by a small minority of very rich and powerful ruling class; there was no middle state. The Mughal state was a “despotism”. 5. His ideas influenced Western thinkers like Montesquieu (oriental despotism) and Karl Marx (Asiatic mode of production).

To what extent is his account useful? - It gives a vivid picture of the oppression of the peasantry and the burden of revenue demands, and of some regions. - But it is limited and often inaccurate: 1. Private property did exist – Mughal official documents (Ain-i-Akbari and others) show that land rights existed; zamindars had hereditary rights; peasants could sell and mortgage land. 2. Contemporary sources do not suggest uniform ruin; there was agrarian expansion, cash crops, and prosperity in many regions. 3. Bernier contradicts himself — elsewhere he describes the fertility of Bengal: “a country so fertile … that it is said to have produced more rice than Egypt”. 4. His aim was to compare India with Europe and show Europe’s superiority; his account reflects European concerns (he warned that France should not follow the Mughal model of crown ownership of land). 5. He was an urban visitor with limited direct contact with villages.

Conclusion: Bernier’s account provides some insights but must be used critically and corroborated with other sources such as the Ain-i-Akbari and revenue records.

Bernier claimed the emperor owned all land, so there was no private property, leading to ruined agriculture, oppressed and miserable peasants and a despotic state with no middle class — ideas that influenced Montesquieu and Marx. His account is only partly useful: Mughal sources show private property and zamindari rights, agrarian expansion and prosperity in many regions, he contradicts himself (fertile Bengal), and his aim was to show Europe’s superiority — so historians use it critically.

Answer

Crafts mentioned in the passage: 1. Imitation of European manufactures (general handicrafts); 2. Muskets (guns); 3. Fowling-pieces (guns for shooting birds); 4. Gold ornaments (goldsmithy); 5. Paintings.

Comparison with descriptions of artisanal activity in the chapter: 1. Royal karkhanas – Bernier also described the karkhanas (workshops) of the emperor and nobles, where artisans worked under supervision — “Large halls are seen at many places, called karkhanas or workshops for the artisans. In one hall embroiderers are busily employed, superintended by a master. In another you see the goldsmiths; in a third, painters; in a fourth, varnishers in lacquer-work; in a fifth, joiners, turners, tailors and shoe-makers; in a sixth, manufacturers of silk, brocade and fine muslins …” 2. Bernier’s contradiction – in the passage he praises the skill of Indian craftsmen; but elsewhere he says that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures, since profits were appropriated by the state; manufactures were therefore declining. Yet he also says that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals flowed into India as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver. 3. Ibn Battuta describes the demand for Indian textiles — cotton cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin — in West Asia and South-East Asia, and the high profits of trade. 4. Women’s labour – the chapter notes that women’s labour was crucial in non-agricultural production such as spinning, weaving and crafts. 5. Both show the high quality and variety of Indian crafts, and the importance of craft production in the economy and in long-distance trade.

The passage mentions imitations of European goods, muskets, fowling-pieces, gold ornaments and paintings. Elsewhere in the chapter Bernier describes karkhanas with embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, lacquer-workers, joiners, tailors, shoemakers and silk and muslin makers, yet also claims artisans lacked incentive to improve — a contradiction. Ibn Battuta notes the great demand for Indian textiles abroad, and women’s labour in spinning and weaving was important — all showing the high quality and variety of Indian crafts.

Exercises – Map work and Projects

Answer

Countries/regions visited by Ibn Battuta (1325–1354) — to be marked: - Morocco (Tangier, his birthplace), Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt (Alexandria, Cairo); - Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Arabia (Mecca — pilgrimage, Medina), Yemen, Oman; - East African coast (Somalia — Mogadishu, Kenya — Mombasa, Tanzania — Kilwa); - Turkey (Anatolia), Crimea and the Volga region (southern Russia), Constantinople (Byzantine Empire); - Central Asia (Uzbekistan — Bukhara, Samarkand), Afghanistan; - India (Sind, Multan, Delhi, Malabar coast — Calicut), Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh (Bengal); - Sumatra and Java (Indonesia), Malaysia, China (Quanzhou, Beijing); - On return: Spain (Granada), Mali and the Sahara (Timbuktu) in West Africa.

Seas he may have crossed: Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea (around), Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea, Strait of Malacca, South China Sea.

Ibn Battuta visited Morocco, North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Oman, the East African coast, Anatolia, Crimea, Central Asia, Afghanistan, India, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bengal, Sumatra and China, and later Spain and Mali. He may have crossed the Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Black Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Strait of Malacca and South China Sea.

Answer

(Sample report — students should interview their own relatives.)

Interviewee: My grandfather, aged 72, who travelled from our village in eastern Uttar Pradesh to Kolkata in 1972 for work.

• (a) Where: Kolkata (West Bengal).
• (b) How: by bullock cart to the nearest railway station, then by a steam/diesel train (third class) to Howrah.
• (c) How long: nearly two days.
• (d) Why: to find work in a jute mill, as there was little income from farming.
• (e) Difficulties: overcrowded trains, no reservation, language problem (Bengali), finding a place to stay, homesickness, unfamiliar food, cheating by touts.

Similarities and differences he noticed

Conclusion: Like the travellers in the chapter, my grandfather noticed what was new and unfamiliar and compared it with home; his view was shaped by his own background.

Interview an older relative about where, how, how long and why they travelled and the difficulties faced; tabulate similarities and differences in language, clothes, food, customs, buildings, roads and the lives of men and women; and reflect, like the travellers in the chapter, on how their observations were shaped by their own background.

Answer

(Sample report on Ibn Battuta.)

Life: Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier, Morocco, in 1304, into a family of Islamic legal scholars (qazis). He received a literary and scholastic education. In 1325, at 22, he set out on the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca, but travelled for about 30 years, covering some 1,20,000 km. He reached Sind in 1333, was appointed qazi of Delhi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and served for several years. In 1342 he was sent as the Sultan’s envoy to China; he travelled via the Malabar coast, the Maldives (where he served as qazi), Sri Lanka, Bengal, Assam, Sumatra and reached Quanzhou. He returned to Morocco in 1354. On the orders of the Sultan of Morocco, his accounts were recorded by Ibn Juzayy in the Rihla. He died around 1368–77.

How he described society: - Novel things: the coconut (“like a man’s head”), paan (betel leaves). - Cities: Delhi (28 gates, huge population), Daulatabad, bustling bazaars with mosques, temples and performances. - Economy: fertile land with two crops a year; textile trade; efficient postal system (uluq and dawa). - Social practices: slavery (slaves as gifts, female slaves as musicians and spies, low prices); sati (he describes witnessing it). - Politics: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s generosity and cruelty; dangers of travel (robbed by bandits).

Comparison with excerpts in the chapter: the excerpts in the chapter (coconut, paan, Delhi, Daulatabad, postal system, slaves) match the full account; the full Rihla also includes his adventures, dangers and personal experiences, and some exaggerations, showing his perspective as a curious, adventurous scholar of the Islamic world.

Sample: Ibn Battuta (1304–c.1377) of Tangier travelled for about 30 years from 1325, reached Sind in 1333, served as qazi of Delhi under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, went as envoy to China via the Maldives, Sri Lanka and Sumatra, and returned in 1354; his Rihla was recorded by Ibn Juzayy. He described the coconut and paan, cities, bazaars, fertile villages, the postal system, slavery and sati — consistent with the chapter’s excerpts, though the full text adds personal adventures and some exaggeration.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind; caste (Q 1, 6)
• ☒ Ibn Battuta: cities, slavery (Q 2, 4, 7, 10, 12)
• ☒ Bernier: urban centres, sati, rural society, crafts (Q 2, 3, 5, 8, 9)
• ☒ Project on travel (Q 11)

Total questions answered: 12 of 12