NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1: Variations in Psychological Attributes

Chapter at a glance

Exercises

Answer

Psychologists characterise intelligence as a global, aggregate capacity of a person that shows up in many kinds of adaptive behaviour, not just in school performance.

• Alfred Binet was among the first to formally study it; he defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.
• David Wechsler defined intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with her/his environment. This is the most widely used definition.
• Other psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg add that intelligence also means the ability to adapt to the environment, shape it, or select a new one, and to solve problems valued in one’s culture.

Common characteristics in these views: 1. Ability to understand the world and learn from experience. 2. Rational and abstract thinking, reasoning and problem solving. 3. Purposeful action and effective use of resources when faced with challenges. 4. Adaptation to the environment (including adjusting to novel situations).

The psychometric approach treats intelligence as a set of abilities measured by test scores, while the information-processing approach looks at the processes (planning, attention, reasoning) people use.

Intelligence is the global and aggregate capacity to think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with the environment (Wechsler) — the ability to understand the world, reason, learn from experience, adapt and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.

Answer

Evidence for heredity (nature)

• Twin studies: correlation of intelligence of identical twins reared together is about 0.90; identical twins reared apart about 0.72; fraternal twins reared together about 0.60; siblings reared together about 0.50; siblings reared apart about 0.25. The closer the genetic relationship, the more similar the intelligence.
• Adoption studies: the intelligence of adopted children is more similar to that of their biological parents than to that of their adoptive parents.

Evidence for environment (nurture)

• As children grow, their intelligence moves closer to that of their adoptive parents.
• Children from disadvantaged backgrounds adopted into families with higher socio-economic status show a large increase in intelligence scores.
• Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence, while nutrition, good family background, quality schooling and enriched environments increase it.

Conclusion: There is general consensus that intelligence is a product of the complex interaction of heredity and environment. Heredity sets a range within which a person’s intelligence can develop; the environment (support, opportunities, stimulation) decides where within that range the person ends up.

Both matter: twin and adoption studies show a strong genetic influence (identical twins ≈ 0.90), while deprivation, adoption into enriched homes, nutrition and schooling show environmental influence. Heredity sets the limits; environment determines how far intelligence develops within them.

Answer

Howard Gardner (Theory of Multiple Intelligences) held that intelligence is not a single entity; there are distinct types of intelligence, independent of each other, that interact to solve a problem.

1. Linguistic – skills in producing and using language; sensitivity to words and their meanings (poets, writers).
2. Logical-mathematical – logical and abstract thinking, solving mathematical problems (scientists, Nobel prize winners).
3. Spatial – forming and using mental images, visualising spatial relations (pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects).
4. Musical – sensitivity to musical rhythms, pitch and patterns; producing and manipulating music (musicians).
5. Bodily-kinaesthetic – using the whole or parts of the body flexibly and creatively (athletes, dancers, surgeons).
6. Interpersonal – understanding the motives, feelings and behaviour of others and relating well to them (psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers).
7. Intrapersonal – knowledge of one’s own strengths, feelings and motives; using it to plan and relate to others (philosophers, spiritual leaders).
8. Naturalistic – sensitivity to the features of the natural world; recognising and classifying plants, animals and nature (hunters, farmers, botanists, tourists).

Gardner identified eight independent intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.

Answer

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (1985) is an information-processing view. He defined intelligence as the ability to adapt, to shape and select the environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture. It has three basic types:

1. Componential (analytical) intelligence – analysis of information to solve problems. It has three components:
   • knowledge acquisition – learning and doing new things;
   • meta (higher-order) – planning what to do and how to do it;
   • performance – actually doing things. People high on this think analytically and critically and do well at school.
2. Experiential (creative) intelligence – using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems; people high on it integrate different experiences in original ways (e.g. scientists, inventors).
3. Contextual (practical) intelligence – dealing with everyday environmental demands: adapting to the present environment, selecting a more favourable one, or modifying it (“street smart”, business sense). Such people may not do well at school but succeed in life.

How it helps: it shows that intelligence is not just academic ability measured by IQ tests. It explains why some people are successful in practical life without high grades and why creativity and adaptation to real-life contexts are part of intelligence.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory sees intelligence as adapting to, shaping and selecting environments, through three types — componential/analytical (knowledge-acquisition, meta and performance components), experiential/creative (solving novel problems) and contextual/practical (dealing with everyday demands) — showing that intelligence is broader than academic IQ.

Answer

The PASS model was developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby (1994). According to it, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of the brain, responsible for arousal/attention, coding/processing and planning.

1. Arousal/Attention – the basic state of arousal makes a person attend to stimuli. Optimal arousal focuses attention on the relevant aspects of a problem; too much or too little arousal interferes with attention (e.g. a teacher announcing a test arouses you to attend to the chapters).
2. Simultaneous and Successive Processing – information is integrated into the knowledge system in two ways:
   • Simultaneous processing – relating concepts and integrating them into a meaningful pattern as a whole (e.g. Raven’s Progressive Matrices — seeing the relationship among abstract figures).
   • Successive processing – remembering information serially, one after another (e.g. learning digits, alphabets, multiplication tables).
3. Planning – after information is attended to and processed, planning is activated: thinking of possible courses of action, implementing them to reach a target and evaluating their effectiveness; if a plan fails it is modified (e.g. planning a study schedule for a test, revising it if it does not work).

These three processes operate on a knowledge base developed through formal learning (reading, writing, experimentation) or the environment (books, music). They are measured by the Das–Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), a battery of verbal and non-verbal tasks for children of 5–18 years.

The PASS model (Das, Naglieri and Kirby) says intellectual activity involves three neurological systems: Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous and Successive processing. Arousal/attention focuses on stimuli, simultaneous/successive processing integrates information, and planning decides, implements and evaluates courses of action; they are measured by the Cognitive Assessment System.

Answer

Yes. Intelligence is shaped by the culture in which a person grows up; a culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art and literature. Sternberg’s contextual intelligence and Vygotsky’s idea that cultures provide a social context also suggest this.

• Technologically advanced (Western) societies value technological intelligence: skills of generalisation and abstraction, speed, minimal moves, and mental manipulation. Child-rearing promotes these skills. Attention, observation, analysis, performance, speed and achievement orientation are emphasised.
• Non-Western cultures (e.g. Africa, India) value other skills. For example, African communities see intelligence in social responsibility, cooperation and obedience; Chinese culture values benevolence and doing what is right.
• Indian tradition views intelligence from a holistic perspective — integral intelligence, which gives equal importance to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and to connectivity with the social and world environment. The Sanskrit term buddhi includes mental effort, determined action, feelings and opinions, knowledge, discrimination and judgment, along with cognitive capacities. Competencies identified include:
  1. Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem solving, effective communication);
  2. Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy, concern for others);
  3. Emotional competence (self-regulation of emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct, self-evaluation);
  4. Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance, goal-directed behaviour).

Yes. Western cultures stress technological intelligence (abstraction, speed, analysis), while other cultures value social and practical skills; the Indian concept of integral intelligence (buddhi) includes cognitive, social, emotional and entrepreneurial competence and connectivity with the social world.

Answer

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was introduced by William Stern. It is mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100:

Mental age (Binet) is a measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group. When MA = CA, IQ = 100; MA > CA gives IQ above 100, and MA < CA gives IQ below 100. For example, a 10-year-old with a mental age of 12 has IQ = 12/10 × 100 = 120.

IQ scores are normally distributed in the population (bell-shaped curve) with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of about 15; most people score in the middle range.

Classification by IQ

Persons with IQ above 130 are considered gifted (along with other qualities), and those with IQ below 70 (together with deficits in adaptive behaviour, appearing before 18 years) may be intellectually disabled.

IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100, with a mean of 100. People are classified as very superior (>130), superior (120–130), high average (110–119), average (90–109), low average (80–89), borderline (70–79) and intellectually disabled (<70).

Answer

In addition, intelligence tests may be non-verbal (using symbols or figures, e.g. Raven’s Progressive Matrices) or individual/group tests.

Verbal tests need oral or written verbal responses and can be used only with literate people (often culture-biased); performance tests need manipulation of objects (e.g. Kohs’ Block Design), use little language and are more culture-fair.

Answer

Intelligence is distributed in the population along a normal curve: most people (about 50%) have average IQ (90–109), with fewer people at either extreme.

1. Intellectual deficiency (intellectual disability) — IQ below 70. The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) views it as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing with deficits in adaptive behaviour (self-care, social skills, communication) and manifested before 18 years. Levels: - Mild (IQ 55–70) – slower development, can learn practical skills and hold jobs with support; - Moderate (IQ 35–54) – lag in language and motor skills, can learn self-care and simple skills with training; - Severe (IQ 20–34) and Profound (below 20) – need constant supervision and care; may have neurological problems.

2. Average intelligence — IQ 90–109; the majority of people.

3. Intellectual giftedness — IQ above 130, along with high creativity, task commitment and exceptional performance. Gifted children show advanced logical thinking, high-level memory, intrinsic motivation, independent learning and enjoyment of solitude. Talent refers to a remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g. music, sports). Gifted children need special educational programmes (enrichment, acceleration).

Other variations: people also differ in kinds of intelligence (Gardner), in emotional intelligence, and in special abilities such as aptitude and creativity.

Individuals vary along a normal distribution: a few have intellectual disability (IQ below 70 with adaptive deficits — mild, moderate, severe, profound), most are average (IQ 90–109), and a few are gifted (IQ above 130 with creativity and task commitment); they also differ in types of intelligence, EQ and special abilities.

Answer

IQ (intelligence quotient) measures cognitive abilities such as reasoning, memory and problem solving. EQ (emotional quotient) measures emotional intelligence — the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in oneself and others (Salovey and Mayer; popularised by Daniel Goleman).

EQ is more closely related to overall success in life, for these reasons:

1. IQ predicts academic achievement, but school success is only one part of life success. Many people with high IQ fail in personal and professional relationships.
2. Goleman argued that IQ accounts for only about 20% of success in life; the rest depends on emotional and social skills.
3. Emotionally intelligent people:
   • are aware of their own feelings and emotions;
   • can manage stress, frustration and anger (self-regulation);
   • motivate themselves and delay gratification;
   • understand and empathise with others;
   • handle relationships and work well in teams.
4. These qualities are essential for leadership, teamwork, careers, family life and mental health.
5. Studies show that training in emotional intelligence improves academic performance, reduces behaviour problems and improves relationships.

However, both are complementary. A certain level of IQ is required for most jobs and academics; EQ helps a person use that intelligence effectively. The best combination is adequate IQ along with high EQ.

EQ is more related to success in life: IQ predicts academic achievement, but managing one’s own emotions, motivating oneself, empathising and handling relationships (emotional intelligence) decide success in work, relationships and well-being. Ideally IQ and EQ work together.

Answer

Aptitude is the combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s potential to acquire some specific knowledge or skills after training (e.g. mechanical, musical, clerical aptitude).

• Aptitude vs Intelligence: intelligence is a general mental ability to think rationally and adapt; aptitude is a specific ability or potential in a particular area. Two people with the same intelligence may differ in aptitudes (one may have mechanical, the other musical aptitude).
• Aptitude vs Interest: interest is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to others. A person may be interested in a field but lack the aptitude for it, or vice versa. For success, both interest and aptitude in an area are needed (e.g. someone interested in music who also has musical aptitude can succeed with training).

Measurement of aptitude

1. Independent (specific) aptitude tests – measure one aptitude, e.g. clerical aptitude, mechanical aptitude, numerical aptitude, typing aptitude.
2. Multiple (generalised) aptitude tests – test batteries measuring several aptitudes, e.g. the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). The DAT measures verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, space relations, spelling and language usage. J.M. Ojha developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.

Aptitude is the potential to acquire specific skills with training; intelligence is a general mental ability, and interest is a preference for an activity. Aptitude is measured by independent tests (clerical, mechanical) and multiple aptitude batteries like the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT).

Answer

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects or problem solutions that are novel and appropriate. Creative thinking is mainly divergent (many possible answers), while intelligence tests mostly measure convergent thinking (one correct answer).

Relationship (threshold idea)

1. Studies (e.g. Terman’s study of gifted children) found that people with high IQ were not necessarily creative, and creative ideas could come from people without very high IQ.
2. Research shows that a minimum level of intelligence (an IQ of about 120) is necessary for creativity. Above this threshold, intelligence and creativity are only weakly related — a highly intelligent person may or may not be creative.
3. Thus high intelligence does not ensure creativity, but creativity requires a certain level of intelligence.
4. Both share abilities such as learning, knowledge base and reasoning, but creativity also involves fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, openness to experience, curiosity, persistence and independence.
5. Creativity is not limited to a few; it varies in degree and kind (e.g. a scientist, artist or mechanic may be creative in different areas), and is shaped by both heredity and environment.

Creativity (divergent production of novel and appropriate ideas) and intelligence are related only up to a point: a minimum level of intelligence is needed for creativity, but beyond it, high intelligence does not guarantee high creativity.

Question Project 1

Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differ from each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains. Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare.

Answer

Guidance for the project

1. Domains to cover: (i) intelligence, (ii) aptitude, (iii) interest, (iv) personality, and (v) values.
2. Sample: five persons of different ages, genders and occupations (with their consent).
3. Method: observation plus a semi-structured interview, e.g.
   • Intelligence – how they solve everyday problems, plan, adapt to new situations;
   • Aptitude – what they learn easily (mechanical work, music, numbers, language);
   • Interest – hobbies and preferred activities;
   • Personality – sociable/reserved, calm/anxious, organised/careless, cooperative;
   • Values – what they consider most important (family, money, honesty, service).
4. Profile: write a one-page profile for each person, rating each domain (low/average/high) with examples.
5. Comparison: prepare a comparison table and discuss how the five differ, and how age, education, occupation and culture may explain these differences.
6. Ethics: keep identities confidential and do not label anyone.

Interview and observe five people on intelligence, aptitude, interest, personality and values; write a profile of each and compare them in a table, explaining the differences in terms of individual and environmental factors while maintaining confidentiality.

Question Project 2

Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people in these vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychological attributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

Answer

Sample analysis

Report format: introduction; method (interviews of people in the vocations, books/internet); description of each vocation; attributes needed (intelligence type, aptitude, interest, personality, values); conclusion on the importance of matching individual attributes with vocational choice.

Choose five vocations, describe their work, and identify the intelligence, aptitude, interest, personality and values needed (e.g. doctor — scientific aptitude and empathy; engineer — spatial ability and mechanical aptitude); conclude that matching attributes to vocations promotes success.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Concept and theories of intelligence (Q 1, 3, 4, 5)
• ☒ Heredity, environment and culture (Q 2, 6)
• ☒ Assessment and variations (Q 7, 8, 9)
• ☒ Emotional intelligence, aptitude and creativity (Q 10, 11, 12)
• ☒ Projects (P 1, 2)

Total questions answered: 14 of 14