Class | Subject | Book | Chapter | Session | Questions covered |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
XII | Political Science | Contemporary World Politics (NCERT) | 6 – Environment and Natural Resources | 2026-27 | 9 of 9 |
Chapter at a glance
Topic | Key point |
|---|---|
Environmental concerns in global politics | Declining agricultural land, water scarcity, ozone depletion, loss of biodiversity, coastal pollution; club of Rome ‘Limits to Growth’ (1972); Brundtland Report ‘Our Common Future’ (1987) |
Earth Summit | Rio de Janeiro, June 1992 (UN Conference on Environment and Development): 170 states, thousands of NGOs, many MNCs; Agenda 21, sustainable development, Climate Change Convention, Biodiversity Convention, Rio Declaration |
Global commons | Areas outside sovereign jurisdiction – atmosphere, Antarctica, ocean floor, outer space; managed by agreements (Antarctic Treaty 1959, Montreal Protocol 1987) |
North–South divide | Common but differentiated responsibilities (UNFCCC 1992); Kyoto Protocol (1997) exempted developing countries; Paris Agreement (2015) |
India | Per capita emissions low; supports CBDR; National Auto-fuel Policy, Energy Conservation Act 2001, Electricity Act 2003, renewable energy, International Solar Alliance |
Resource geopolitics | Oil, water conflicts; indigenous peoples’ rights |
Exercises
Which among the following best explains the reason for growing concerns about the environment? a. The developed countries are concerned about protecting nature. b. Protection of the environment is vital for indigenous people and natural habitats. c. The environmental degradation caused by human activities has become pervasive and has reached a dangerous level. d. None of the above.
Answer
Answer
(c) Environmental degradation caused by human activities has become pervasive and has reached a dangerous level.
(c).
Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements about the Earth Summit: a. It was attended by 170 countries, thousands of NGOs and many MNCs. b. The summit was held under the aegis of the UN. c. For the first time, global environmental issues were firmly consolidated at the political level. d. It was a summit meeting.
Answer
Answer
Statement | Correct/Wrong |
|---|---|
a | Correct |
b | Correct (UN Conference on Environment and Development) |
c | Correct |
d | Correct (heads of state and government attended) |
All four statements (a, b, c, d) are correct.
Which among the following are TRUE about the global commons? a. The Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, ocean floor and outer space are considered as part of the global commons. b. The global commons are outside sovereign jurisdiction. c. The question of managing the global commons has reflected the North-South divide. d. The countries of the North are more concerned about the protection of the global commons than the countries of the South.
Answer
Answer
a, b and c are true. Statement d is not true – it is a matter of differing priorities and responsibility (the North wants equal responsibility, the South stresses historical responsibility and development), not that the North alone is more concerned.
a, b and c are true (d is not).
What were the outcomes of the Rio Summit?
Answer
Answer
- Agenda 21 – a list of development practices to achieve sustainable development.
- Rio Declaration on Environment and Development – principles for environmental protection along with development.
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – leading to the Kyoto Protocol (1997).
- Convention on Biological Diversity.
- Forest principles.
- Recognition of the principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ and the North–South divide – the North wanted environmental protection, the South linked environment to economic development.
- Consensus on combining economic growth with ecological responsibility – sustainable development.
(Critics said Agenda 21 was biased in favour of economic growth rather than ecological conservation.)
Rio produced Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on sustainable development, the conventions on climate change (UNFCCC) and biodiversity, forest principles and recognition of common but differentiated responsibilities.
What is meant by the global commons? How are they exploited and polluted?
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Answer
Global commons are areas or resources that are outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any one state and therefore require common governance by the international community – the Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.
Exploitation and pollution
- Atmosphere – emission of greenhouse gases causes global warming; CFCs caused ozone depletion (ozone hole).
- Oceans – over-fishing, oil spills, dumping of waste and plastics, coastal pollution, deep-sea mining.
- Antarctica – tourism, fishing, mineral exploration and oil spills threaten its fragile ecosystem.
- Outer space – space debris and militarisation; unequal access dominated by technologically advanced countries.
Because no one owns them, everyone tends to over-use them (“tragedy of the commons”). Agreements like the Antarctic Treaty (1959), Montreal Protocol (1987) and Antarctic Environmental Protocol (1991) try to regulate them.
Global commons are areas outside any country’s jurisdiction – the atmosphere, Antarctica, ocean floor and outer space; they are exploited and polluted through greenhouse and ozone-depleting gases, over-fishing, oil spills and dumping, tourism and mining in Antarctica, and space debris.
What is meant by ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’? How could we implement the idea?
Answer
Answer
Meaning: All countries share a common responsibility to protect the global environment, but their responsibilities are different according to their contribution to the problem and their capacity. The developed countries (North) are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions and have more resources and technology, so they should bear a greater share of the burden. Developing countries (South) need space for development. (Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration; UNFCCC 1992.)
Implementation
- Developed countries should cut emissions more and faster (as under the Kyoto Protocol, which exempted India and China).
- Financial assistance to developing countries (Green Climate Fund).
- Transfer of clean technology at affordable cost.
- Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement (2015), according to each country’s capacity.
- Developing countries should also adopt clean energy and sustainable practices as their capacity grows (e.g. India’s solar mission, International Solar Alliance).
It means all countries share responsibility for the environment, but the developed North, being historically responsible and richer, should bear more; it can be implemented by deeper emission cuts by developed countries, climate finance and technology transfer to developing countries, and capacity-based national commitments.
Why have issues related to global environmental protection become the priority concern of states since the 1990s?
Answer
Answer
- Scientific evidence of global warming, ozone depletion, loss of biodiversity and pollution became stronger, showing that degradation had reached dangerous levels.
- Global nature of problems – these problems cross borders and cannot be solved by any one state; they need international cooperation.
- Impact on development and livelihoods – declining agricultural land, water scarcity, deforestation and natural disasters affect food security and health.
- End of the Cold War – freed attention and space for new global issues.
- Earth Summit (1992) placed environment firmly on the political agenda.
- Pressure of environmental movements and NGOs worldwide.
- Recognition of the link between environment and security (resource conflicts, environmental refugees).
Because degradation reached dangerous, well-documented levels; the problems are global and need cooperation; they threaten food, water, health and development; the end of the Cold War, the Earth Summit and environmental movements pushed them onto state agendas.
Compromise and accommodation are the two essential policies required by states to save planet Earth. Substantiate the statement in the light of the ongoing negotiations between the North and South on environmental issues.
Answer
Answer
There is a North–South divide in environmental negotiations:
- North (developed countries) wants all countries, including major developing economies like China and India, to share equal responsibility for reducing emissions.
- South (developing countries) argues that the North caused most of the historical emissions, so it must take greater responsibility, provide finance and technology, and allow the South to develop. Per capita emissions in the South are much lower.
Why compromise is needed
- Neither side can solve global problems alone; climate change affects everyone.
- Kyoto Protocol failed partly because the USA refused to ratify it, objecting to the exemption of developing countries.
- The Paris Agreement (2015) succeeded through compromise – all countries make nationally determined contributions, while developed countries promise finance and technology support, respecting CBDR.
- Agreements like the Montreal Protocol show that accommodation (phased timelines for developing countries, a multilateral fund) leads to success.
Hence compromise and accommodation – the North accepting greater responsibility and the South accepting obligations according to its capacity – are essential to save the planet.
The North wants equal obligations, the South stresses historical responsibility and development needs; only compromise – as in the Paris Agreement’s nationally determined contributions with climate finance, and the Montreal Protocol – can produce effective global action.
The most serious challenge before the states is pursuing economic development without causing further damage to the global environment. How could we achieve this? Explain with a few examples.
Answer
Answer
Through sustainable development – development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs (Brundtland Report, 1987):
- Renewable energy – solar, wind and hydro power instead of fossil fuels (India’s National Solar Mission, International Solar Alliance).
- Energy efficiency – Energy Conservation Act 2001, efficient appliances (star labelling), LED bulbs (UJALA scheme).
- Clean transport – CNG and electric vehicles, metro rail, cleaner fuels (BS-VI norms).
- Afforestation and conservation – social forestry, protection of forests and wildlife (Project Tiger).
- Water conservation – rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, river-cleaning (Namami Gange).
- Waste management – recycling, ban on single-use plastics, Swachh Bharat.
- Green technology and international cooperation – technology transfer, climate finance, carbon markets.
- Respecting indigenous and local communities – community management of resources (e.g. sacred groves, Chipko movement).
By pursuing sustainable development – renewable energy, energy efficiency, clean transport, afforestation, water conservation, waste management, green technology and community-based resource management (e.g. India’s solar mission, BS-VI norms, Namami Gange).
Topic checklist
- ☒ Environmental concerns and the Earth Summit (Q 1, 2, 4, 7)
- ☒ Global commons (Q 3, 5)
- ☒ Common but differentiated responsibilities and North–South negotiations (Q 6, 8)
- ☒ Sustainable development (Q 9)