NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Themes in Indian History I Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments

Chapter at a glance

Exercises – Answer in 100–150 words

Answer

Yes, they were different.

Upanishadic thinkers (c. 6th century BCE onwards): - Wanted to understand the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death and rebirth. - They asked whether rebirth was due to past actions (karma). - They sought to understand and express the nature of the ultimate reality — the relationship between the individual soul (atman) and the universal soul (brahman). - Through knowledge and spiritual effort, one could attain liberation.

Fatalists (Ajivikas, e.g. Makkhali Gosala): - Believed that everything is predetermined. Their view: “Though the wise should hope, by this virtue … by this penance I will gain karma … and the fool should hope by the same means to gradually rid himself of his karma, neither of them can do it. Pleasure and pain are measured out … like a ball of string, which unwinds to its full length when thrown.” Human effort cannot change destiny.

Materialists (Lokayatas, e.g. Ajita Kesakambalin): - Believed that there is no life after death and no soul; a human being is made of the four elements, which return to earth, water, fire and air at death. “Fools and wise alike, cut off and perish. They do not survive after death.” Hence giving alms, sacrifices and offerings are useless.

Differences: Upanishadic thinkers believed in the soul, karma, rebirth and liberation through knowledge; fatalists believed that everything is predetermined and effort is useless; materialists denied the soul, rebirth and the value of rituals.

Yes. Upanishadic thinkers believed in atman and brahman, karma, rebirth and liberation through knowledge; fatalists (Makkhali Gosala) believed everything was predetermined and human effort could not change destiny; materialists (Ajita Kesakambalin) denied the soul and life after death and rejected alms and sacrifices as useless.

Answer

The basic philosophy of the Jainas existed before Vardhamana Mahavira (6th century BCE), the 24th tirthankara (“one who guides men and women across the river of existence”).

Central teachings: 1. The entire world is animated – even stones, rocks and water have life. 2. Ahimsa (non-injury) – non-violence to all living beings — humans, animals, plants and insects — is central. The principle of ahimsa has deeply influenced Indian thinking. 3. Karma and rebirth – the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. 4. Asceticism and penance – these are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation. 5. Five vows – Jaina monks and nuns take five vows: not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, to observe celibacy, and not to possess property. 6. Spread – Jainism spread to many parts of India; Jaina scholars produced literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil; Jaina images and manuscripts were made.

Jainism teaches that the whole world is animated, that ahimsa (non-injury to all beings) is central, that the cycle of rebirth is shaped by karma, and that freedom from karma requires asceticism, penance and renunciation; monks and nuns take five vows — not to kill, steal or lie, to be celibate, and not to own property.

Answer

1. In the 19th century, Europeans were very interested in the stupa at Sanchi. The French sought Shahjehan Begum’s permission to take away the eastern gateway (torana) to be displayed in a museum in France. The English also wanted to take it to England.
2. Fortunately, both the French and the English were satisfied with carefully prepared plaster-cast copies, and the original remained at the site, part of the Bhopal state.
3. The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.
4. John Marshall, Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan, in recognition of her support.
5. Sultan Jehan Begum funded the museum that was built there, as well as the guesthouse where Marshall lived and wrote the volumes. She also funded the publication of the volumes.

So the stupa complex survived — unlike Amaravati, which was dismantled and taken away — partly due to the wise decisions and patronage of the Begums of Bhopal. Sanchi is now a World Heritage Site.

The Begums of Bhopal helped save Sanchi: Shahjehan Begum allowed the French and English only plaster-cast copies of the eastern gateway, so the original stayed in place; Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum provided money for its preservation, and Sultan Jehan funded the museum, the guesthouse where John Marshall wrote, and the publication of his volumes, which he dedicated to her.

Answer

(a) She dated it according to the regnal year of the Kushana ruler Huvishka — “in the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka”, along with the season and day: “in the first month of the hot season, on the eighth day”.

(b) She installed an image of the Bodhisatta because in Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattas were regarded as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through their efforts but used it to help others attain nibbana. Worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became important; installing an image was an act of devotion and a way of gaining merit for herself and her family. It may also have been meant to spread the faith.

(c) She mentioned her mother’s sister, the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, and her father and mother.

(d) The text she knew was the Tipitaka (the “three baskets” — Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka). (Strictly, the inscription says Buddhamita knew the Tipitaka; as Buddhamita’s niece and fellow nun, Dhanavati is understood to have learnt it.)

(e) She learnt it from her teacher, the bhikkhu Bala, who knew the Tipitaka (and through her aunt Buddhamita, who was Bala’s female pupil).

1. By the regnal year of the Kushana king Huvishka (year 33), with the season and day. (b) To gain merit and express devotion, as Mahayana Buddhism venerated compassionate Bodhisattas and their images. (c) Her maternal aunt, the nun Buddhamita, and her father and mother. (d) The Tipitaka. (e) From the monk Bala (whose pupil was Buddhamita), who knew the Tipitaka.

Answer

The sangha was an organisation of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) who became teachers of dhamma. They lived simply, possessing only essentials for survival, such as a bowl to receive food from the laity.

Why men and women joined: 1. Spiritual reasons – to follow the teachings of the Buddha, understand the dhamma, and attain nibbana (liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth). 2. Equality within the sangha – all who entered the sangha were considered equal, having to renounce their earlier social identities on becoming monks or nuns. People from different social backgrounds — kings, wealthy men, gahapatis, and humbler folk — workers, slaves and craftspeople — joined. This attracted people from lower castes who faced discrimination in society. 3. Freedom from domestic and social burdens – for women, the sangha offered an alternative to domestic life and patriarchal control, an opportunity to pursue learning and spiritual life. Mahapajapati Gotami, the Buddha’s foster mother, was the first woman to be ordained as a bhikkhuni (on the Buddha’s disciple Ananda’s request). Many women who joined became teachers of dhamma and theris (respected women who had attained liberation). Their compositions are compiled in the Therigatha. 4. Democratic functioning – the internal functioning of the sangha was based on the traditions of ganas and sanghas, where consensus was arrived at through discussions; if that failed, by vote. 5. Escape from hardships – poverty, debt, family problems. 6. Inspiration from the Buddha’s personality and teaching in the language of ordinary people (Pali/Magadhi).

People joined the sangha to follow the Buddha’s teachings and attain nibbana, because all members were treated as equal regardless of birth (attracting slaves, workers and lower castes), because it offered women freedom from domestic and patriarchal life and a chance to become teachers and theris (e.g. Mahapajapati Gotami, Therigatha), because it functioned democratically, and to escape social hardships.

Exercises – Short essay (about 500 words)

Answer

Knowledge of Buddhist literature — the life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and other texts — is essential to understand the sculpture at Sanchi. Historians compare sculptures with textual evidence to identify their meaning.

Examples: 1. Vessantara Jataka scene – a sculpture at first sight seems to show a rural scene of thatched huts and trees; but art historians, after careful study, identify it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka — the story of a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana and went to live in the forest with his wife and children. 2. Aniconic symbols – early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form; instead they used symbols: - The empty seat – indicates the meditation of the Buddha; - The bodhi tree – the Buddha’s enlightenment under the peepal tree at Bodh Gaya; - The stupa – the mahaparinibbana (death/final liberation); - The wheel (dhammachakka) – the first sermon at Sarnath (“turning the wheel of dhamma”); - Footprints – the Buddha’s presence. These symbols can only be understood with knowledge of the Buddha’s life as recorded in Buddhist texts. 3. Scenes from the Buddha’s life – the departure from the palace, enlightenment, and other events.

Limitations — elements not explained by Buddhist texts: 1. Shalabhanjika – the beautiful woman swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. She does not seem to be connected with Buddhist renunciation. Scholars, using other sources, found that she is a shalabhanjika — according to popular belief, a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear fruit; she was an auspicious symbol, integrated into the stupa’s decoration. This shows that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas. 2. Animals – elephants, horses, monkeys, cattle are carved finely, probably to create lively scenes and as symbols (e.g. elephant – strength and wisdom). 3. Gaja-Lakshmi – a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants sprinkling water on her, possibly Maya (the Buddha’s mother) or Gajalakshmi, a goddess of good fortune associated with elephants. 4. Serpents (nagas) – depicted on several pillars; James Fergusson thought Sanchi was a centre of tree and serpent worship, being unfamiliar with Buddhist literature.

Conclusion: Buddhist literature helps a great deal in understanding the stories and symbols in Sanchi sculpture, but some motifs reflect popular traditions and beliefs that require other sources. Hence, historians combine textual knowledge with knowledge of popular traditions.

Buddhist literature is essential: it allows identification of scenes like the Vessantara Jataka and of aniconic symbols — empty seat (meditation), bodhi tree (enlightenment), stupa (mahaparinibbana), wheel (first sermon). But it does not explain everything: the shalabhanjika, Gaja-Lakshmi, animals and serpents come from popular, pre-Buddhist traditions incorporated into Buddhist art, so other sources are also needed.

Answer

(The figures are relief panels from the Sanchi gateways. The answer is based on their usual features.)

Fig. 4.32 – Rural scene: - Architecture: simple thatched huts with curved roofs, made of bamboo/wood and leaves; a simple boundary or fence. - Plants and animals: many trees (forest), animals such as elephants, deer, cattle, monkeys moving freely; possibly a stream or pond with lotus plants. - Activities: people engaged in simple tasks — sitting near huts, attending to animals, carrying water, ascetics meditating or performing rituals. - Why rural: absence of large buildings, presence of huts, open natural surroundings, animals and simple daily activities typical of village or forest life (e.g. hermitage scenes like those in the Vessantara Jataka).

Fig. 4.33 – Urban scene: - Architecture: multi-storeyed buildings and palaces with balconies, windows, arched doorways, city walls and gateways, fortifications. - Plants and animals: fewer trees; animals shown are horses and elephants used in processions, chariots. - Activities: processions of royalty, people watching from balconies and windows, musicians, soldiers, crowds; possibly a royal procession carrying relics of the Buddha (e.g. the “war of the relics” scene at Kushinagar). - Why urban: large, well-planned structures, fortified gateways, crowds, royal activities and organised processions typical of cities.

Fig. 4.32 is a rural scene — simple thatched huts, many trees and freely moving animals (elephants, deer, cattle, monkeys), with people doing simple tasks or meditating. Fig. 4.33 is an urban scene — multi-storeyed buildings with balconies, fortified walls and gateways, and royal processions with horses, elephants, musicians and crowds watching. The type of buildings, natural surroundings and activities distinguish them.

Answer

From the early centuries CE, Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu as the principal deity) and Shaivism (worship of Shiva) developed as part of Puranic Hinduism, with an emphasis on bhakti (devotion) to a chosen deity. This led to new developments in sculpture and architecture.

Sculpture: 1. Avataras of Vishnu – Vaishnavism developed the idea of ten avataras (incarnations) — Vishnu takes different forms to save the world when there is disorder (e.g. Varaha, Narasimha, Rama, Krishna). Many of these were shown in sculptures, e.g. the Varaha (boar) avatara rescuing the earth goddess Prithvi (Udayagiri, Madhya Pradesh). 2. Shiva was symbolised by the linga, but was also represented in human form; images of Shiva and Parvati, Shiva as Nataraja etc. 3. Other deities – images of goddesses (Durga, Lakshmi), Ganesha, Kartikeya were made. 4. Sculptures were full of complex symbolism – e.g. the many arms of deities holding weapons and symbols; to understand them, historians look at the stories in the Puranas (compiled in their present form by about the mid-1st millennium CE), which were told by priests and recited in temples. 5. Mahabalipuram – the relief depicting the descent of the Ganga or Arjuna’s penance (7th century).

Architecture – temples: 1. Around the time stupas were being built, the first temples were also built to house images of gods and goddesses. 2. Early temples were simple – a small square room called the garbhagriha (womb-house), with a single doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image. 3. Gradually, a tall structure called the shikhara was built over the central shrine. 4. Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture. 5. Later, temples became elaborate with assembly halls (mandapas), huge walls and gateways (gopurams), and arrangements for water supply. 6. Rock-cut temples – some of the earliest temples were artificial caves hollowed out of rock; the earliest were built in the 3rd century BCE by Asoka for the Ajivikas (Barabar caves). This tradition evolved into the Kailashnatha temple at Ellora (8th century), carved out of a single piece of rock — the whole temple was carved, the sculptor was amazed by his own work (“Oh, how did I make it!”). 7. Examples: Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh, 5th century), temples at Mahabalipuram, Udayagiri caves.

With Vaishnavism and Shaivism, sculpture depicted Vishnu’s avataras (e.g. Varaha at Udayagiri), Shiva as the linga and in human form, and goddesses, rich in symbolism explained by the Puranas. Temples developed from a simple garbhagriha with a doorway to structures with a tall shikhara, sculpted walls, mandapas and gateways; rock-cut temples evolved from the Barabar caves to the Kailashnatha temple at Ellora carved from a single rock (e.g. the Deogarh Dashavatara temple, Mahabalipuram).

Answer

Why stupas were built: 1. Sacred places and relics – there was an ancient tradition of regarding certain places as sacred (e.g. trees, rocks — chaityas). Stupas were built where relics of the Buddha — such as his bodily remains (bones, ashes) or objects used by him — were buried. These mounds were known as stupas, and came to be associated with Buddhism. 2. According to a Buddhist text, the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. 3. Commemorating the Buddha – stupas were sites of veneration and pilgrimage, marking places associated with the Buddha’s life (Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar) and symbolising his mahaparinibbana. 4. Gaining merit – donors built and decorated stupas to gain merit.

How stupas were built (donations): 1. Inscriptions on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations for building and decorating them. 2. Some donations were made by kings (e.g. Satavahanas), others by guilds (e.g. the guild of ivory workers who financed part of a gateway at Sanchi), and hundreds of men and women, who mentioned their names, places and occupations and relatives. 3. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed.

Structure of a stupa: 1. The stupa (Sanskrit “heap”) originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called the anda. 2. Gradually it evolved into a more complex structure balancing round and square shapes. 3. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure representing the abode of the gods. 4. Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri (umbrella). 5. Around the mound was a railing (vedika), separating the sacred space from the secular world. 6. Early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings, resembling a bamboo or wooden fence, and gateways (toranas) richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points. 7. Pradakshina – worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a clockwise direction, keeping it on the right, imitating the sun’s course. 8. Later stupas (Amaravati, Shah-ji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar) were elaborately decorated with niches and sculptures.

Stupas were built to enshrine relics of the Buddha (Asoka is said to have distributed relics and ordered stupas), to commemorate and venerate him, and to gain merit; they were financed by donations from kings, guilds (e.g. ivory workers at Sanchi), monks, nuns and ordinary men and women. A stupa began as a semi-circular mound (anda), topped by a harmika, yashti and chhatri, enclosed by a railing (vedika) with carved gateways (toranas), around which worshippers performed clockwise pradakshina.

Exercises – Map work and Projects

Answer

Areas to which Buddhism spread (to be marked): - Sri Lanka – by Asoka’s son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra (3rd century BCE). - Central Asia – Afghanistan, Bactria, Khotan, Kashgar along the Silk Route. - China – via Central Asia (1st century CE onwards); then Korea and Japan. - Tibet and Mongolia. - South-East Asia – Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia (Java — Borobudur, Sumatra). - Nepal, Bhutan.

Routes to be traced: 1. Land routes: - From Taxila/Gandhara through the Khyber Pass into Afghanistan, then along the Silk Route through Central Asia (Bactria, Samarkand, Kashgar, Khotan) to China (Dunhuang, Luoyang), and onward to Korea and Japan. - From north India through Nepal and the Himalayan passes to Tibet. - From eastern India (Bengal, Assam) to Myanmar. 2. Sea routes: - From ports on the eastern coast (Tamralipti in Bengal, ports in Andhra and Tamil Nadu like Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu) across the Bay of Bengal to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Cambodia and on to southern China. - From the western coast (Bharuch, Sopara) towards Sri Lanka.

Mark Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Tibet, Nepal, Afghanistan and Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan and Mongolia. Trace land routes from Gandhara through Afghanistan along the Silk Route to China, Korea and Japan, through the Himalayas to Tibet and eastward to Myanmar; and sea routes from Tamralipti and the eastern ports across the Bay of Bengal to Sri Lanka, South-East Asia and southern China.

Answer

(Sample answer — students should describe traditions practised in their own area.)

Tradition: Hinduism (Vaishnavism and Shaivism) and Jainism in my neighbourhood

1. Religious texts used today: the Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana (Tulsidas’ Ramcharitmanas), Puranas (Bhagavata Purana), Shiva Purana, Hanuman Chalisa; Jaina texts like the Kalpa Sutra and Tattvartha Sutra.
2. Preservation and transmission: printed books, recitation and chanting by priests, kathas (storytelling sessions) and pravachans (discourses), bhajans and kirtans, TV and internet (apps, YouTube), teaching within families; manuscripts are preserved in temple libraries (e.g. Jaina bhandars).
3. Use of images: yes — images of Vishnu (as Krishna, Rama), Shiva (linga), Durga, Ganesha and Hanuman in temples and homes; Jaina temples have images of tirthankaras in meditative posture. Similarities with those described in the chapter: images of avataras, linga, goddesses, tirthankaras; complex symbolism (many arms, weapons, mounts). Differences: modern images are often brightly painted, made of marble or metal, dressed and decorated; mass-produced calendar art and idols.
4. Religious buildings today: temples with a garbhagriha housing the main image, a shikhara above it, a mandapa (hall) for gatherings and bhajans, a courtyard, gateways, and facilities like water and electricity, loudspeakers; Jaina temples with carved marble. Comparison: like early temples, they have a sanctum and shikhara; but they are larger, more elaborate and built of modern materials (concrete, marble). Unlike stupas (solid mounds with relics, railings and toranas, for pradakshina), temples are hollow buildings to house images, though pradakshina (circumambulation) is still performed in temples.

Sample: Vaishnava, Shaiva and Jaina traditions are practised locally; texts like the Gita, Ramcharitmanas, Puranas and Jaina sutras are preserved in print and manuscripts and transmitted through recitation, kathas, bhajans and media. Images of avataras, lingas, goddesses and tirthankaras are worshipped, similar in form and symbolism to early ones but more decorated. Modern temples keep the garbhagriha, shikhara and mandapa of early temples but are larger and made of modern materials, while stupas were solid relic mounds with railings and gateways.

Answer

Guidance for the project: 1. Select five pictures, for example: - A torana panel from Sanchi (Buddhist, 1st century BCE); - A Gandhara Buddha image (1st–3rd century CE) and a Mathura Buddha image; - The Varaha sculpture at Udayagiri (Gupta period); - Shiva Nataraja (Chola bronze, 10th–11th century); - A Jaina tirthankara image (e.g. Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola) or an Ajanta painting. 2. Remove captions, show each picture to two people of different backgrounds (e.g. a grandparent and a classmate), and record what they say: what they see, whom they identify, what story or meaning they attach, how they feel. 3. Compare their descriptions with each other and with the historians’ interpretations given in the chapter. 4. Typical findings: people familiar with a tradition may identify deities and stories quickly (e.g. recognising Nataraja or the Buddha), while others describe only what they see (a man dancing, a woman with elephants); some motifs (shalabhanjika, aniconic symbols) are not recognised without knowledge of the texts; interpretations differ based on religious background, age and education. 5. Conclusion: like historians, viewers interpret images using their own knowledge and beliefs; understanding sculpture requires knowledge of texts, stories and context, and different viewers may arrive at different meanings.

Choose five images from different periods and regions (e.g. Sanchi panel, Gandhara/Mathura Buddha, Udayagiri Varaha, Chola Nataraja, a tirthankara or Ajanta painting), show them without captions to two people, record and compare their descriptions with historians’ interpretations, and conclude that interpretation depends on the viewer’s knowledge of texts, stories and context.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Philosophical debates: Upanishads, fatalists, materialists (Q 1)
• ☒ Jainism and Buddhism, the sangha (Q 2, 4, 5)
• ☒ Stupas and Sanchi (Q 3, 6, 7, 9)
• ☒ Vaishnavism, Shaivism, temples (Q 8)
• ☒ Spread of Buddhism; projects (Q 10–12)

Total questions answered: 12 of 12