NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Themes in Indian History II Chapter 3: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century)

Chapter at a glance

Exercises – Answer in 100–150 words

Answer

Methods used: 1. Survey and mapping – in 1800, Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer and antiquarian of the East India Company (later the first Surveyor General of India), prepared the first survey map of the site. 2. Collection of local traditions – much of the initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi. 3. Photography – from 1856, photographers like Alexander Greenlaw began to record the monuments, enabling scholars to study them. 4. Epigraphy – from 1836, epigraphists began collecting dozens of inscriptions found at this and other temples at Hampi (e.g. J.F. Fleet). 5. Use of travellers’ accounts and other literary sources (Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit texts). 6. Archaeological excavation and conservation – from 1876, J.F. Fleet and others; in the 20th century, the Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums; in 1976 Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance; in the early 1980s detailed documentation of the material remains through extensive and intensive surveys, using a variety of recording techniques (each of 20 teams documenting small areas) — maps, buildings, roads, paths, markets, etc.

How they complemented the priests’ information: The priests’ accounts were based on memory and tradition, and so may have been incomplete, mixed with legend and lacking dates. Survey maps, photographs, inscriptions, travellers’ accounts and excavations provided precise, verifiable information — dates, names of rulers, the layout of the city, architecture and details of daily life — which helped confirm, correct and expand the priests’ oral information.

Methods included Colin Mackenzie’s survey map (1800), recording local traditions from the Virupaksha temple priests, photography from 1856 (Greenlaw), collecting and reading inscriptions from 1836, travellers’ accounts and literary texts, and archaeological surveys, excavation and conservation. These provided dated, verifiable evidence on rulers, layout and architecture that confirmed, corrected and expanded the priests’ memory-based accounts.

Answer

1. Natural setting – the most striking feature of the location is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra, which flows in a north-easterly direction. The surrounding landscape has stunning granite hills that seem to form a girdle around the city. A number of streams flow down to the river from these rocky outcrops.
2. Embankments and reservoirs – in almost all cases, embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of varying sizes. As this is one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements had to be made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city.
3. Kamalapuram tank – one of the most important tanks was built in the early years of the 15th century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”.
4. Hiriya canal – one of the most prominent waterworks; drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”. This was apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.
5. Tanks built by kings – Krishnadeva Raya built a tank (described by Paes) at the mouth of two hills.
6. Wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks also served the needs of the people.

Vijayanagara met its water needs from the Tungabhadra and the streams flowing from surrounding granite hills, by building embankments to create reservoirs; the Kamalapuram tank (15th century) irrigated fields and supplied the royal centre through a channel; the Hiriya canal from a dam on the Tungabhadra irrigated the valley; and kings like Krishnadeva Raya built more tanks, along with wells and temple tanks.

Answer

Abdur Razzaq noted that “between the first, second and the third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses”. Paes also observed that “from this first circuit until you enter the city there is a great distance, in which are fields in which they sow rice and have many gardens and much water”.

Advantages: 1. Food security during sieges – medieval sieges aimed to starve the defenders into submission and could last for months and even years. Rulers built large granaries within fortified areas. By enclosing agricultural land, the city could produce its own food (rice, grains, vegetables, fruits) and withstand long sieges. 2. Protection of crops and farmers – cultivated fields, gardens and irrigation works were protected from enemy raids and looting. 3. Water supply – canals and tanks within the walls could be protected. 4. Supply for the large urban population – nearby fields reduced transport costs and ensured regular supply.

Disadvantages: 1. Expensive and elaborate – the rulers had to build very long, massive fortification walls (seven lines of walls according to Abdur Razzaq), which required huge resources and labour. 2. Defence difficulties – a much larger area had to be defended, requiring more soldiers. 3. Limited area – the land available within the walls was limited and could not meet all food needs; much still came from outside. 4. Use of land – fertile land within the city could not be used for other urban purposes; congestion.

Advantages: the city could grow its own food and withstand long sieges, crops, farmers and irrigation works were protected, and supply to the large urban population was assured. Disadvantages: very long, expensive fortifications had to be built and defended with more soldiers, the enclosed land was still limited, and fertile land was locked away from other urban uses.

Answer

The mahanavami dibba is a massive platform located on one of the highest points of the city, rising from a base of about 11,000 sq ft to a height of 40 ft. Evidence suggests it supported a wooden structure. Its base is covered with relief carvings.

Rituals associated with it (during the Mahanavami festival): - Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami (the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September–October, known variously as Dussehra (north India), Durga Puja (Bengal) and Navaratri or Mahanavami (peninsular India). - The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion. - Ceremonies included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. - Dances, wrestling matches and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants, chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings. - On the last day, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony on an open field. The nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.

Significance: 1. Display of royal power and wealth – to impress subjects, nayakas and foreign visitors. 2. Reaffirming political relationships – the nayakas paid tribute and showed loyalty; the king reasserted his authority over them. 3. Religious legitimacy – associating the king with the divine (goddess worship) and with the victory of good over evil. 4. Military strength – inspection of armies showed preparedness.

The mahanavami dibba rituals, held during the Mahanavami festival (Dussehra/Navaratri), included worship of the image and the state horse, animal sacrifices, dances, wrestling, processions and presentations by nayakas, and an inspection of the armies, with nayakas bringing gifts and tribute. They displayed royal power, wealth and religious legitimacy, and reaffirmed the king’s authority over the nayakas and his military strength.

Answer

(Based on typical features of the carved pillars in the Virupaksha temple mandapas.)

1. Floral motifs – yes, the pillar has floral and creeper designs — lotus flowers, leaves and scrolls — carved on its bands and borders, often framing the panels.
2. Animals shown – the pillar shows animals such as yalis (mythical lion-like creatures, sometimes shown with riders), horses (often rearing, with riders), elephants, and possibly birds, monkeys or a fish.
3. Why animals are depicted:
   • Yalis and horses symbolise power, strength and protection; rearing horses with warriors show martial valour, reflecting the military character of the Vijayanagara state (horses were imported and highly valued).
   • Elephants symbolise royalty and prosperity.
   • Animals also had religious and mythological significance (vehicles of gods, scenes from epics) and made the carvings lively and decorative.
4. Human figures – the pillar shows human figures such as warriors on horseback, dancers and musicians, devotees with folded hands, ascetics, and deities or mythological figures (e.g. scenes from the Ramayana, Krishna, or Shiva). Figures are shown with elaborate ornaments, headdresses and clothing, in dynamic postures. Some may represent donors or the king.

These carvings show the high skill of Vijayanagara sculptors and the blend of religious, royal and everyday themes.

The pillar carries floral and creeper motifs (lotuses, leaves, scrolls). It shows animals such as yalis, rearing horses with riders and elephants, depicted to symbolise power, protection, valour and royalty and for religious and decorative purposes. Human figures include mounted warriors, dancers and musicians, devotees and deities or mythological figures, richly ornamented and in lively poses.

Exercises – Short essay (about 250–300 words)

Answer

The “royal centre” is located in the south-western part of the settlement. It included over 30 building complexes identified as palaces. These were large structures not associated with ritual functions.

Reasons why it may be appropriate: 1. Palaces and royal structures – large building complexes identified as palaces; the King’s palace is the largest of the enclosures, though it has not yielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence. 2. Mahanavami dibba – a massive platform where the king displayed his power and performed rituals during Mahanavami. 3. Audience hall – a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular intervals, possibly used for royal audiences. 4. Lotus Mahal – one of the most beautiful buildings, named by British travellers; possibly a council chamber where the king met his advisers. 5. Elephant stables – an impressive structure next to the Lotus Mahal, for royal elephants. 6. Walls and fortifications separating it from the rest of the city.

Reasons why it may not be entirely appropriate: 1. Temples – the royal centre also had many temples. One of the most spectacular is the Hazara Rama temple, probably used only by the king and his family. The images in the central shrine are missing, but sculpted panels on the walls survive — scenes from the Ramayana. Other shrines too were located within it. 2. The king’s palace has not yielded definitive evidence of being a royal residence. 3. The names of many buildings were given by later British travellers and are based on guesses (e.g. “Lotus Mahal”), and the uses of many structures are uncertain. 4. Rulers also patronised the sacred centre (Virupaksha temple), and the king’s activities were not confined to this area.

Conclusion: The term “royal centre” is broadly appropriate because the area was dominated by royal buildings and activities, but it is not exact, because it also contained important temples and the precise functions of many structures are not known.

The term is broadly apt, as the area had over 30 palace complexes, the mahanavami dibba, an audience hall, the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables, separated by walls. But it is not exact: the area also contained temples such as the Hazara Rama temple with Ramayana panels, the “King’s palace” has no definite evidence of royal residence, and many buildings’ names and uses were guessed by later British travellers.

Answer

Lotus Mahal: 1. One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre, named by British travellers in the 19th century. Historians are not sure what it was used for; one suggestion (from Mackenzie’s map) is that it may have been a council chamber, where the king met his advisers. 2. Architecture: it combines Indo-Islamic features — arches (true arches), domes and plasterwork — with local features such as the plinth, pyramidal roofs and decorative elements. It is a two-storeyed pavilion with recessed arches, stucco decoration.

Elephant stables: 1. A large structure with eleven domed chambers in a row, each large enough for an elephant, with a central chamber possibly for musicians or guards. 2. Architecture: domes of various styles and arches, again showing Indo-Islamic influence.

What they tell us about the rulers: 1. Wealth and power – the scale and quality show the rulers’ great wealth and resources. 2. Military strength – the importance of elephants (and horses) in war and royal display; the rulers maintained large numbers of war elephants. 3. Cultural openness and synthesis – the rulers adopted architectural styles of the neighbouring Deccan Sultanates (e.g. arches and domes), even though they were rivals; they were open to new ideas. The Vijayanagara rulers were called “Hindu Suryatrana” (Hindu sultans), reflecting their adoption of Sultanate court customs, dress and architecture. 4. Aesthetic sense – elegance, symmetry and fine decoration reveal refined tastes. 5. Display of authority – such buildings were meant to impress subjects, nayakas and foreign visitors.

The Lotus Mahal (possibly a council chamber) and the elephant stables (eleven domed chambers) combine Indo-Islamic arches and domes with local features. They show that the rulers were wealthy and powerful, valued war elephants and military strength, were open to the architectural styles of the rival Deccan Sultanates (calling themselves “Hindu Suryatrana”), had refined taste, and used buildings to display authority.

Answer

Traditions that inspired them: 1. Temple architecture of south India – the long history of temple building in the region under the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas: temples with a sanctum (garbhagriha), shikhara/vimana, mandapas and pillared halls. Rulers patronised temples to build support and legitimacy; temples were centres of learning and economic activity. 2. Indo-Islamic architecture of the Deccan Sultanates (Bahmani and later Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar) – arches, domes, plasterwork, as seen in the Lotus Mahal, elephant stables, the Queen’s bath and gateways like the one in the fortification walls. 3. Local traditions – the use of local granite and the natural landscape; earlier sacred associations of the hills (e.g. Matanga hill, Hemakuta hill; the local goddess Pampadevi; associations with the Ramayana — Kishkindha, the kingdom of Vali and Sugriva).

How they transformed these traditions (new features): 1. Royal gateways (raya gopurams) – towering gateways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines and signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. They were probably also reminders of the power of kings, able to command the resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways. 2. Mandapas and pavilions – long, pillared corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex; elaborately carved pillars (e.g. with yalis and horses). 3. Kalyana mandapas – special halls for the celebration of the marriage of the deity; temple chariot festivals with wide chariot streets (e.g. at Vitthala temple, with a stone chariot) — paved with stone slabs, lined with pillared pavilions where merchants set up shops. 4. Scale – temples became much larger complexes (e.g. Virupaksha temple — expanded with a hall built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession, and an eastern gopuram; Vitthala temple — dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu worshipped in Maharashtra, showing the incorporation of traditions from other regions). 5. Fusion of styles – combining Indo-Islamic arches and domes with Hindu temple elements in secular buildings. 6. Fortifications enclosing agricultural land, and waterworks.

Vijayanagara architects drew on south Indian temple traditions (Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Cholas), Indo-Islamic arches and domes of the Deccan Sultanates, and local sacred landscapes (Pampadevi, Ramayana associations). They transformed them with towering raya gopurams proclaiming royal power, long pillared corridors and richly carved mandapas, kalyana mandapas, wide chariot streets, much larger temple complexes (Virupaksha, Vitthala), and a fusion of Islamic and Hindu features in secular buildings like the Lotus Mahal.

Answer

There is relatively little archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. But from travellers’ accounts and other sources, we get some impressions:

1. Dense population – the city was densely populated. Domingo Paes described: “the city is very large, the people are innumerable”; he compared it to Rome.
2. Houses – Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people: “the other houses of the people are thatched, but nonetheless well built and arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open places”. Most people lived in simple thatched houses.
3. Markets and food – Paes described the great markets: the streets were full of people and the markets well stocked with food — rice, wheat, grams, millets, horse-gram, pulses, and great quantities of fruits; meat was sold — “sheep, goats, pigs, hens, ducks, doves, quail and all kinds of birds, sparrows, rats and cats and lizards” (Nuniz) — showing that people ate a variety of food.
4. Religious life – field surveys found many small shrines and images all over the city, suggesting that a variety of cults, perhaps supported by different communities, were prevalent. Ordinary people participated in festivals (Mahanavami, chariot festivals).
5. Wells, rainwater tanks and temple tanks may have served as sources of water for ordinary people.
6. Occupations – the city’s population included soldiers, merchants, artisans, labourers, farmers who cultivated fields within the walls; Muslim residential quarter (with tombs and mosques) in the urban core showing a mixed population; wealthy traders also lived in the city.
7. Labour – ordinary people provided labour for construction of temples, fortifications and waterworks; we do not know their wages or conditions.
8. Limitations – most sources focus on the king and elites; we do not know what ordinary people thought of the buildings, or whether they had access to the royal and sacred centres.

Ordinary people lived in a densely populated city (Paes compared it to Rome), mostly in thatched houses arranged by occupation along long streets (Barbosa); markets were full of grain, fruit and many kinds of meat; small shrines all over the city show varied local cults; wells and tanks supplied water; and they worked as soldiers, artisans, traders, farmers and labourers on great building projects. But the sources say little about their own views or conditions.

Exercises – Map work and Projects

Answer

Travellers and routes (to be traced): 1. Nicolo de Conti (Italy, 1420s) – from Venice, across the Mediterranean to Syria/Damascus, overland through Baghdad and Persia to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf, then by sea across the Arabian Sea to the western coast of India (Cambay/Goa region) and overland to Vijayanagara. 2. Abdur Razzaq (Iran/Persia, 1440s) – an envoy of the ruler of Herat (Timurid, Afghanistan); from Herat/Persia overland to Hormuz, by sea across the Arabian Sea to Calicut (Malabar coast), and then to Vijayanagara. 3. Afanasii Nikitin (Russia, 1470s) – a merchant from Tver, travelled down the Volga to the Caspian Sea, through Persia to Hormuz, then by sea to Chaul (near Mumbai) on the western coast, and overland through the Deccan (Bahmani kingdom, Bidar) to Vijayanagara region. 4. Portuguese travellers – Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz (16th century) – from Lisbon by sea, around the Cape of Good Hope (southern tip of Africa), along the East African coast (Mozambique, Malindi), across the Indian Ocean/Arabian Sea to Goa (Portuguese base from 1510), then overland across the Western Ghats to Vijayanagara.

Mark Italy, Portugal, Iran and Russia. Routes: Nicolo de Conti — Venice, Mediterranean, Syria, Persia, Hormuz, Arabian Sea to the west coast; Abdur Razzaq — Herat/Persia to Hormuz, by sea to Calicut; Afanasii Nikitin — Volga, Caspian Sea, Persia, Hormuz, by sea to Chaul and overland through the Deccan; Portuguese travellers — Lisbon around the Cape of Good Hope, East Africa and the Indian Ocean to Goa, then overland to Vijayanagara.

Answer

(Sample: Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akbar, 1569–1585.)

1. Location and history: about 40 km from Agra; built by Akbar in honour of the sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chishti, who had predicted the birth of his son Salim (Jahangir); capital from 1571 to 1585.
2. Architecture: built of red sandstone on a ridge; combines Persian, Central Asian and Indian (Rajput, Gujarati) styles — arches, domes, chhatris, brackets, carved pillars, courtyards.
3. Political centre features: Diwan-i-Am (hall of public audience), Diwan-i-Khas (hall of private audience, with a central carved pillar supporting a throne platform), Ibadat Khana (hall for religious debates), palaces such as Jodha Bai’s palace, Panch Mahal, Birbal’s house, the royal treasury, mint and quarters for nobles, fortification walls with gates.
4. Ritually significant buildings: the Jama Masjid (one of the largest mosques), the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti (white marble, with intricate jali screens — still visited by pilgrims who tie threads), and the Buland Darwaza (built to commemorate Akbar’s victory in Gujarat).
5. Commercial area: a bazaar along the main road leading to the palace complex, with shops; caravanserais for merchants; workshops (karkhanas).
6. Distinguishing urban layout: a planned city on a ridge with walls on three sides and a lake on the fourth; a hierarchical arrangement — royal and religious complexes on the highest ground, residential quarters and markets below; paved streets, drains, water systems (stepwells, Hiran Minar), courtyards — contrasting with the scattered, unplanned mud villages around.

Sample — Fatehpur Sikri (Akbar, 1570s): a planned red-sandstone city mixing Persian, Central Asian and Indian styles; political buildings like the Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, Ibadat Khana and palaces; ritually significant buildings like the Jama Masjid, Salim Chishti’s tomb and Buland Darwaza; a bazaar and caravanserais for commerce; and a walled, hierarchical layout on a ridge with water systems, unlike the surrounding villages.

Answer

(Sample report — students should visit and sketch a local building.)

Building: a Shiva temple in my locality (built in 1965 by local residents)

Uses: the sanctum houses the deity for worship; the hall is used for bhajans, kirtans and festivals; the courtyard for gatherings and prasad distribution; the tank/tap for washing before worship.

History: collected from the priest and elderly residents — built through community donations; renovated in 2010.

Visit and sketch a local religious building and compare it with the Virupaksha temple: e.g. a small gateway vs huge gopurams, plain concrete pillars vs carved granite pillars, one hall vs many mandapas and corridors, a small shikhara vs towering vimanas, and a tap vs a temple tank — describing the use of each part and the building’s history.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Discovery and study of Hampi (Q 1)
• ☒ Water resources and fortifications (Q 2, 3)
• ☒ Royal centre: mahanavami dibba, Lotus Mahal, elephant stables (Q 4, 6, 7)
• ☒ Sacred centre and architecture (Q 5, 8, 12)
• ☒ Ordinary people; travellers; other cities (Q 9, 10, 11)

Total questions answered: 12 of 12