NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Indian Society Chapter 5: Patterns of Social Inequality and Exclusion

Chapter at a glance

Exercises

Answer

Inequality of individuals refers to natural differences between people in innate characteristics such as talent, ability, effort or physical features. For example, one person may be more intelligent or athletic than another. Such differences are personal, often due to chance, and are not systematically related to social groups.

Social inequality is different: 1. It refers to patterns of unequal access to social resources — economic capital (money, property), social capital (networks, contacts) and cultural capital (education, status). 2. It is socially produced, not the result of innate or natural differences. It arises from the way society is organised. 3. It is systematic and structured — it is not random; people belonging to certain social groups (caste, class, gender, tribe, religion, disability) systematically get more or less of resources. 4. It is persistent across generations — it is transmitted from one generation to another through the family and social institutions (e.g. a Dalit child born in a poor family has fewer opportunities regardless of individual ability). 5. It is supported by beliefs and ideologies that justify it (e.g. caste purity, gender roles).

Thus, while individual inequality is about individuals, social inequality is about groups and the structure of society.

Individual inequality refers to differences in innate abilities, talent or effort between persons; social inequality refers to systematic, socially produced patterns of unequal access to resources (economic, social and cultural capital) based on membership of social groups such as caste, class or gender, which persist across generations and are justified by beliefs.

Answer

Social stratification refers to a system by which categories of people in a society are ranked in a hierarchy. Its three key principles/features:

1. Social stratification is a characteristic of society, not simply a function of individual differences. It is a society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people. E.g. in technologically primitive societies, little was produced so stratification was rudimentary; in industrial and post-industrial societies stratification is complex.
2. Social stratification persists over generations. It is closely linked to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next. A person’s social position is ascribed — children assume the social position of their parents. Within the caste system, birth dictates occupational opportunities. Social mobility is limited.
3. Social stratification is supported by patterns of belief, or ideology. No system of stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely viewed as either fair or inevitable. E.g. the caste system is justified in terms of the opposition of purity and pollution, with Brahmins designated as superior and Dalits as inferior. Those who are disadvantaged may not accept the belief, but those who benefit from it support it.

Social stratification is (i) a characteristic of society, not just of individual differences; (ii) persistent over generations, through family and inheritance of resources; and (iii) supported by patterns of belief or ideology that make it seem fair or inevitable (e.g. purity–pollution in caste).

Answer

Prejudices are pre-conceived opinions or attitudes held by members of one group towards another. The word literally means “pre-judgment” — an opinion formed before considering any evidence or before getting to know the person or group.

How prejudice differs from other opinions or beliefs: 1. Not based on direct evidence – an ordinary opinion or belief may be formed through evidence and experience; prejudice is formed beforehand, based on hearsay or stereotypes. 2. Resistant to change – prejudiced views are held rigidly and are not changed even when contrary evidence or new information is presented, unlike reasoned opinions that can be revised. 3. Directed at groups – prejudices are about entire groups (caste, religion, region, gender) and are applied to every individual member regardless of individual characteristics. 4. Often based on stereotypes – fixed and inflexible characterisations of a group (e.g. “a particular community is lazy”). 5. Prejudice may be positive or negative, but the word usually refers to negative attitudes, and it often leads to discrimination (behaviour).

Prejudice is a pre-judgment — an opinion held by one group about another formed before considering evidence, based on stereotypes, applied to all members of a group, and rigidly resistant to change even when contrary evidence is available; other opinions are based on evidence and can be revised.

Answer

Social exclusion refers to ways in which individuals may become cut off from full involvement in the wider society. It focuses on the processes and mechanisms by which individuals or groups are excluded.

Features: 1. It denies people access to the resources and opportunities that most of the population enjoys — e.g. housing, education, health care, transport, employment, banking, and participation in social and political life. 2. It is not accidental but systematic — the result of structural features of society. 3. It is involuntary — exclusion is practised regardless of the wishes of those who are excluded. E.g. rich people are never found sleeping on pavements or under bridges, but the homeless are excluded from the housing market. 4. Prolonged exclusion leads to a reaction of the excluded, who may stop trying to be included (e.g. Dalits who stop trying to enter temples). 5. Groups that face social exclusion in India include Dalits, Adivasis, women, religious minorities and persons with disabilities.

Social exclusion is the systematic, involuntary process by which individuals or groups are cut off from full involvement in society — denied access to resources and opportunities like housing, education, health, jobs and social participation — due to structural features of society rather than their own choice.

Answer

1. The traditional caste system linked caste with occupation and ritual status; high castes also had economic and educational advantages, while low castes were denied land, education and wealth.
2. Today, although caste is officially abolished and the link between caste and occupation has weakened, there is still a strong correlation between caste and economic status:
   • Data from the National Sample Survey show that the upper castes are over-represented among the richest sections, while Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are over-represented among the poorest.
   • The proportion of SCs and STs below the poverty line is much higher than for upper castes (Panagariya and More, 2013).
   • In urban areas, the gap is even wider; upper castes dominate professional and high-income jobs.
   • Landlessness is highest among Dalits; most agricultural labourers are SC/ST.
3. Caste-based inequalities in education, landholding, assets and jobs continue, though the gap has narrowed slightly over time due to reservations and development.
4. At the same time, caste and class are not identical — some members of lower castes have become prosperous, and some upper-caste members are poor.

Caste is still closely linked to economic inequality: upper castes are over-represented among the rich and SCs/STs among the poor and landless, with much higher poverty rates — though the caste–class correlation is not absolute and the gap has narrowed slightly.

Answer

Untouchability is an extreme and particularly vicious aspect of the caste system that prescribes stringent social sanctions against members of castes located at the bottom of the purity–pollution scale. The “untouchable” castes are outside the caste hierarchy — they are considered so impure that their mere touch (and in some regions even their shadow or presence) pollutes members of other castes.

Three main dimensions: 1. Exclusion – Dalits are excluded from shared drinking water sources (wells, taps), collective religious worship, temples, social ceremonies and festivals. 2. Humiliation-subordination – Dalits are forced to perform demeaning acts: taking off headgear, carrying footwear in hand, standing with bowed heads, not wearing clean clothes, being abused and beaten. 3. Exploitation – economic exploitation through forced, unpaid (begar) or underpaid labour, and assignment of “polluting” occupations (manual scavenging, removal of dead animals, leather work).

Untouchability was abolished by Article 17 of the Constitution, and the Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955 (later the Protection of Civil Rights Act) and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989 made its practice punishable. However, it persists in many forms (Shah et al., Untouchability in Rural India, 2006). Dalits — meaning “downtrodden” — is the term used by the community to refer to themselves.

Untouchability is the extreme form of caste discrimination in which castes at the bottom of the purity–pollution scale are treated as polluting; it involves exclusion (from wells, temples, ceremonies), humiliation-subordination, and economic exploitation. It is abolished by Article 17 and punishable by law, but persists.

Answer

1. State policies: - Constitutional provisions – Article 15 (no discrimination), Article 17 (abolition of untouchability), Article 46 (promotion of educational and economic interests of SCs and STs). - Reservations (affirmative action) – reservation of seats in legislatures (Lok Sabha, State Assemblies, Panchayats) and in government employment and educational institutions for SCs (15%), STs (7.5%) and OBCs (27%). - Laws – Caste Disabilities Removal Act (1850, colonial), Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955 (renamed Protection of Civil Rights Act 1976), Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989, Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers Act 2013. - Welfare schemes – scholarships, hostels, special component plans, land distribution, national commissions for SCs and STs. - 93rd Amendment (2005) – reservation for OBCs in higher education institutions.

2. Non-state initiatives: - Anti-caste movements and reformers: Jotiba Phule, Periyar (E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker), Dr B.R. Ambedkar, Sri Narayana Guru, Iyotheedass. - The Dalit movement, Dalit Panthers, Dalit literature, Dalit political parties (e.g. BSP) and NGOs fighting discrimination.

Limitations: reservations have benefited a section (the “creamy layer”), while many still lack education and jobs; atrocities continue; the shrinking public sector reduces opportunities.

Policies include constitutional guarantees (Articles 15, 17, 46), reservations in legislatures, government jobs and education for SCs, STs and OBCs, laws such as the Untouchability (Offences) Act 1955 and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989, and welfare schemes — supported by non-state efforts of reformers (Phule, Periyar, Ambedkar) and the Dalit movement.

Answer

Article 340 of the Constitution provided for the “socially and educationally backward classes”. The first Backward Classes Commission (Kaka Kalelkar, 1953) and the second (Mandal, 1978–80) identified OBCs. In south India, non-Brahmin movements (e.g. in Tamil Nadu) led to early backward class policies.

OBCs are socially and educationally backward castes that were part of the caste hierarchy but did not face untouchability; they are diverse, including dominant landowning castes, and got central reservations only after the Mandal Commission (1990). Dalits (SCs) faced untouchability, are more uniformly poor and excluded, and have had reservations since independence.

Answer

1. Loss of land and displacement – development projects like dams (e.g. Sardar Sarovar on the Narmada), mines, industries and wildlife sanctuaries have displaced large numbers of adivasis from their land without adequate compensation or rehabilitation.
2. Loss of forest rights – colonial and post-colonial forest laws restricted adivasis’ access to forests, their source of livelihood (minor forest produce, shifting cultivation). The Forest Rights Act 2006 aims to restore some rights.
3. Exploitation by moneylenders, traders, contractors and officials; land alienation to non-tribals despite laws.
4. Poverty, illiteracy and poor health – among the poorest groups; high malnutrition and lack of schools and hospitals.
5. Migration – forced to migrate as casual labourers.
6. Threat to culture and identity – languages, customs and religions are threatened by assimilation and the dominant culture.
7. Political autonomy – demands for self-rule and control over resources; creation of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh; implementation of PESA (1996) and the Fifth and Sixth Schedules.
8. Conflict and violence – areas affected by insurgency; adivasis caught between state forces and militants.

Adivasis are concerned about displacement by dams, mines and industries, loss of land and forest rights, exploitation, poverty, illiteracy and poor health, forced migration, threats to their culture and identity, and the need for autonomy and control over resources (PESA, Forest Rights Act, statehood movements).

Answer

1. 19th century social reform movements (led mostly by men): sati abolition (Raja Ram Mohun Roy), widow remarriage (Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar), child marriage (raising the age of marriage), women’s education (Jotiba and Savitribai Phule, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Pandita Ramabai, Tarabai Shinde’s critique of patriarchy).

2. Early 20th century – women’s organisations at national and local levels (Women’s India Association 1917, All India Women’s Conference 1926); women’s participation in the national movement; the Karachi session of the Congress (1931) declaration on Fundamental Rights committing to gender equality; demand for voting rights; peasant and tribal struggles (Tebhaga, Telangana) in which women participated.

3. After independence (1970s onwards – “second phase”): - The report Towards Equality (1974) showed declining status of women. - Custodial rape (Mathura rape case, 1978) – led to changes in rape laws. - Dowry deaths and domestic violence – anti-dowry campaigns; Dowry Prohibition Act amendments, laws on domestic violence (2005). - Declining sex ratio, sex-selective abortion – PCPNDT Act. - Sexual harassment at the workplace (Vishaka guidelines, 1997; law in 2013), violence against women (Nirbhaya case 2012). - Equal property and inheritance rights, equal wages, women’s work and health. - Representation – reservation in panchayats (73rd/74th Amendments) and demand for reservation in Parliament (achieved by the 2023 Women’s Reservation Act). - Personal laws and Uniform Civil Code debates; education of girls; environment movements (Chipko).

The women’s movement has addressed sati, widow remarriage, child marriage and women’s education (19th c.); voting rights and political participation during the national movement; and since the 1970s, custodial rape, dowry deaths, domestic violence, the declining sex ratio, sexual harassment, equal property and wage rights, and political representation.

Answer

1. Physical impairment vs disability – a physical or mental impairment (e.g. inability to see or walk) is biological. But whether it becomes a “disability” — an inability to participate fully in society — depends largely on how society is organised.
2. Social barriers – disability arises because buildings, transport, schools, workplaces and public spaces are designed for able-bodied people (no ramps, no Braille signs, no sign language interpreters). If society provided these, the impaired person would not be “disabled” in many activities. E.g. a wheelchair user is “disabled” only when there are stairs and no ramp.
3. Attitudes and stereotypes – the disabled are often seen as victims, dependent, objects of pity or charity, or as having a “deficit”. Disability is seen as a result of fate or past karma in some cultural beliefs. These attitudes cause exclusion and low self-esteem.
4. Common features of how disability is understood socially (Anita Ghai and others):
   • disability is seen as a biological given;
   • the problem is seen to originate with the disabled person;
   • the disabled are seen as victims;
   • disability is linked to the disabled person’s self-perception;
   • the idea of disability itself suggests a need for help.
5. Disability and poverty – disability and poverty reinforce each other: malnutrition, poor health care and dangerous work cause impairment among the poor, and disability leads to poverty through exclusion from education and jobs.
6. Language – terms like “handicapped” or “crippled” are stigmatising; Indian languages often use derogatory terms.
7. Social model of disability – the disability rights movement argues that society must change to remove barriers. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016 recognises disability as a social and human rights issue.

Disability is social because an impairment becomes a “disability” largely due to social barriers — inaccessible buildings, transport, schools and jobs — and negative attitudes that treat disabled people as victims or objects of pity; disability is also linked with poverty and exclusion. If society removes barriers and changes attitudes, the impairment need not disable a person.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Social inequality, stratification, prejudice, exclusion (Q 1–4)
• ☒ Caste, untouchability and policies; OBCs (Q 5–8)
• ☒ Adivasi issues (Q 9)
• ☒ Women’s movement (Q 10)
• ☒ Disability (Q 11)

Total questions answered: 11 of 11