NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Psychology Chapter 2: Self and Personality

Chapter at a glance

Exercises

Answer

Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings with regard to herself/himself. These experiences and ideas define the existence of an individual both at the personal and social level. The self develops through interaction with others and has a personal identity (attributes that make one different from others, e.g. name, traits, abilities) and a social identity (aspects that link one to a social or cultural group, e.g. religion, nationality).

Indian vs Western notion of self

Thus, the Indian self is a relational, socially embedded self, while the Western self is an independent, separate self.

Self is the totality of one’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings about oneself. The Indian self has flexible boundaries and is collectivistic and relational (including family, society and the cosmos), whereas the Western self has firm boundaries and is individualistic, with clear self–other dichotomies.

Answer

Delay of gratification means deferring or postponing the satisfaction of immediate needs or desires in order to obtain a larger or more valuable reward later. It is an important aspect of self-control (self-regulation). Walter Mischel’s “marshmallow” studies showed that children who could wait for a bigger reward later did better as adolescents and adults.

Importance for adult development

1. Achievement of long-term goals – adult life requires working for future goals (education, career, savings) rather than giving in to immediate pleasures.
2. Fulfilment of responsibilities – adults have to perform duties towards family and society, which often requires putting aside personal wishes.
3. Self-control and emotional maturity – controlling impulses (anger, eating, spending) reflects maturity and better mental health.
4. Better outcomes – people who can delay gratification show better academic performance, social competence, coping with frustration and stress, and lower rates of addiction.
5. Indian cultural tradition – practices such as fasting (vrata) and non-attachment to worldly things are emphasised to develop self-control.

Psychological techniques of self-control include observation of one’s own behaviour, self-instruction and self-reinforcement.

Delay of gratification is postponing immediate satisfaction for a greater later reward. It is important for adult development because it builds self-control, helps achieve long-term goals, fulfil responsibilities and cope with frustration, and leads to better achievement and mental health.

Answer

Personality (from Latin persona — mask) refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations. It is the set of relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that make a person unique.

Features: (i) it has physical and psychological components; (ii) its expression in behaviour is fairly unique; (iii) its main features are not easily changed with time; (iv) it is dynamic — it may change in response to situational demands, so it is adaptive.

Main approaches

1. Type approaches – classify people into broad categories with similar behavioural characteristics (Charaka Samhita’s vata, pitta, kapha; trigunas — sattva, rajas, tamas; Hippocrates; Sheldon’s body types; Jung’s introverts/extraverts; Type A/B).
2. Trait approaches – identify specific psychological attributes (traits) on which people differ (Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, Big Five).
3. Interactional approach – situational characteristics play an important role; people behave consistently only if situations are similar.
4. Psychodynamic approach – Freud’s theory of unconscious conflicts, id–ego–superego, defence mechanisms; post-Freudians (Jung, Horney, Adler, Fromm, Erikson).
5. Behavioural approach – personality as learned responses to stimuli (Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura’s social learning).
6. Cultural approach – personality as adaptation to ecological and cultural features of a group.
7. Humanistic approach – emphasises growth and self-actualisation (Rogers, Maslow).

Personality is the set of relatively enduring and unique patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours with which a person responds to people and situations. The main approaches are type, trait, interactional, psychodynamic, behavioural, cultural and humanistic.

Answer

Trait approach: It focuses on specific psychological attributes (traits) along which individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways. A trait is a relatively enduring attribute (e.g. shyness, sociability). Traits are stable over time, consistent across situations, and vary in strength among people.

Key theories: - Gordon Allport – cardinal traits (highly generalised, dominate a person’s life, e.g. Gandhian non-violence), central traits (less pervasive, e.g. warm, sincere), secondary traits (least generalised, e.g. likes mangoes). - Raymond Cattell – using factor analysis found 16 source traits (primary factors) underlying surface traits; developed the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). - H.J. Eysenck – two broad dimensions: Neuroticism vs emotional stability and Extraversion vs introversion; later added Psychoticism vs sociability; test: Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). - Five-Factor Model (Paul Costa and Robert McCrae): Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Difference from type approach

The trait approach describes personality in terms of stable, consistent traits on which people differ in degree (Allport, Cattell’s 16 PF, Eysenck, Big Five). Unlike the type approach, which puts people into a few discrete categories, it treats traits as continuous dimensions and gives a more detailed description.

Answer

Sigmund Freud explained personality in terms of levels of consciousness and structural elements.

Levels of consciousness: 1. Conscious – thoughts, feelings and actions of which people are aware. 2. Preconscious – mental activity people become aware of only if they attend to it. 3. Unconscious – mental activity of which people are unaware; contains instinctive or animal drives and repressed wishes and desires that are unacceptable. The unconscious is a reservoir of conflicts.

Structure of personality – three competing forces:

1. Id – the source of a person’s instinctual energy; deals with immediate gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses. It works on the pleasure principle and does not care for moral values, society or other individuals.
2. Ego – grows out of the id and seeks to satisfy the id’s instinctual needs in accordance with reality. It works on the reality principle, often directs the id towards appropriate ways of behaving, is patient and reasonable.
3. Superego – the moral branch of mental functioning; it tells the id and ego whether gratification in a particular instance is ethical. It is learned from parents and society and helps control the id by internalising parental authority (moral principle).

The ego mediates between the id’s demands, the superego’s restrictions and reality. Freud believed that much of human behaviour reflects an attempt to deal with or escape from anxiety; the ego uses defence mechanisms (repression, projection, denial, reaction formation, rationalisation, regression) to protect itself. He also proposed libido as the energy behind the life instinct (and the death instinct, Thanatos), and five psychosexual stages — oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital — through which personality develops.

Freud explained personality through levels of consciousness (conscious, preconscious, unconscious) and three structures: the id (instinctual, pleasure principle), the ego (reality principle, mediates) and the superego (moral principle). The ego balances these demands using defence mechanisms, and personality develops through psychosexual stages.

Answer

Karen Horney (neo-Freudian) emphasised interpersonal relationships in childhood. According to her, psychological disorders were caused by disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood. When parents are indifferent, discouraging and erratic in their behaviour, the child feels insecure, and a feeling called basic anxiety results. Deep resentment towards parents, or basic hostility, results from this anxiety. By showing excessive dominance or indifference, or providing too much or too little approval, parents generate feelings of isolation and helplessness in children. So, for Horney, depression would result from basic anxiety and hostility arising from poor parent–child relationships in early life.

Alfred Adler (Individual Psychology) held that human behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed; each of us has the capacity to choose and create. Personal goals are the source of motivation. People are motivated by the need to overcome feelings of inferiority — a feeling of inadequacy and guilt arising in childhood — and strive for superiority/perfection. If these feelings are not overcome, an inferiority complex develops. For Adler, depression would result from feelings of inadequacy/inferiority and failure to achieve one’s goals (a faulty lifestyle and lack of social interest).

Horney would explain depression as the result of basic anxiety and hostility caused by disturbed parent–child relationships in childhood, whereas Adler would explain it as the result of unresolved feelings of inferiority/inadequacy and failure to achieve one’s personal goals.

Answer

Main proposition: The humanistic approach (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow) emphasises the positive, growth-oriented nature of human beings. It holds that people have an innate tendency to grow, to realise their potential, and to be free to choose their actions. It focuses on subjective experience, personal growth and psychological health, rather than on unconscious conflicts or learning.

• Carl Rogers proposed the idea of a fully functioning person; behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile, and people are good and creative. The self-concept is central; when there is a gap between the real self and ideal self, dissatisfaction results. Unconditional positive regard (as in client-centred therapy) helps build self-esteem and growth.

Maslow’s self-actualisation: Abraham Maslow described a hierarchy of needs: physiological → safety → belongingness and love → esteem → self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is the state of fulfilment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way. People who are self-actualised: - are self-aware, accept themselves and others; - are open to experience, spontaneous and creative; - have peak experiences; - are problem-centred, independent and democratic in their attitudes; - have deep relationships and a sense of humour.

Maslow studied healthy, successful people to arrive at this idea, giving an optimistic view of human beings capable of love, joy and creative work.

The humanistic approach holds that humans are basically good and have an innate tendency to grow and realise their potential through free choice. Maslow’s self-actualisation is the highest need — the state of fulfilment in which a person realises her/his full potential, being self-aware, accepting, creative, spontaneous and open to experience.

Answer

Behavioural analysis methods observe a person’s behaviour in a variety of situations:

1. Interview – structured (specific questions in a set order) or unstructured (interviewer decides questions based on responses); helps to know a person’s attitudes, feelings and history.
2. Observation – systematic observation by trained persons, with careful choice of behaviour to be observed, method of recording and setting (e.g. a psychologist observing a child’s interaction with mother).
3. Behavioural ratings – used in educational and industrial settings; people are rated by those who know them well on certain traits using rating scales.
4. Nomination – used for peer assessment; each person nominates one or more persons in the group with whom s/he would like to work, study or play; useful for assessing popularity and leadership.
5. Situational tests – a person is observed in a specially created situation (e.g. the situational stress test — performing a task with confederates who are uncooperative or critical).

Problems / limitations

1. Professional training needed – observation and interview require skilled, trained people.
2. Time-consuming and costly.
3. Observer bias – the observer’s own values and prejudices may affect interpretation.
4. Presence of the observer may change the behaviour of the person (reactivity).
5. Rating errors – halo effect (rating on the basis of one favourable trait), middle-category bias (avoiding extreme points), and extreme response bias.
6. In nomination, people may nominate on the basis of liking rather than on the trait being assessed; interviews may be affected by the interviewee’s desire to appear in a good light.

Observational (behavioural analysis) methods include interviews, observation, behavioural ratings, nominations and situational tests. Problems: they need trained observers, are time-consuming, and suffer from observer bias, reactivity (the observer’s presence changes behaviour) and rating errors such as halo effect and middle-category bias.

Answer

Structured personality tests (self-report measures) are fairly structured measures, often based on theory, which require subjects to give verbal responses using a particular rating scale. The subject has to report objectively her/his own feelings with respect to various items. Responses are accepted at face value and scored in quantitative terms against norms. They are called “structured” because items and response options are fixed, and the scoring is objective.

Two most widely used structured tests

1. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – developed by Hathaway and McKinley; a very effective tool for identifying psychopathology. The revised version (MMPI-2) has 567 statements; the subject judges each as “true” or “false”. It has 10 subscales (e.g. hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity–femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, hypomania, social introversion). In India, the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) follows MMPI lines.
2. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) – assesses two dimensions: introversion–extraversion and emotional stability–neuroticism; later a third dimension, psychoticism, was added.

(Another widely used test is Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF).)

Problems: social desirability (tendency to give socially desirable responses) and acquiescence (tendency to agree with items regardless of content).

Structured (self-report) personality tests are theory-based measures in which subjects report their own feelings on fixed items with set response options, scored objectively. The two most widely used are the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).

Answer

How they assess personality: Projective techniques are based on the psychoanalytic theory that much of our behaviour is governed by unconscious motives which cannot be assessed directly. Hence:

1. The stimuli are relatively ambiguous or unstructured (ink-blots, pictures, incomplete sentences).
2. The person is asked to interpret or respond to these stimuli; there is no right or wrong answer.
3. While doing so, the person projects her/his own feelings, desires, needs and conflicts onto the stimulus, revealing the unconscious.
4. Responses are not scored objectively but interpreted qualitatively by trained professionals.

Widely used projective tests

1. Rorschach Inkblot Test – Hermann Rorschach; 10 inkblots (5 black-and-white, 2 with some red ink, 3 in pastel colours). Administered in two phases: performance proper (subject says what s/he sees in each blot) and inquiry (detailed report of where and why).
2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – Morgan and Murray; 30 black-and-white picture cards and 1 blank card; the subject tells a story about each picture (what led to the situation, what is happening, what will happen, what characters feel). Indian adaptation by Uma Chaudhary.
3. Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study) – cartoon-like pictures of frustrating situations; assesses how people express aggression (extrapunitive, intropunitive, impunitive). Indian adaptation by Udai Pareek.
4. Sentence Completion Test – incomplete sentences (“My father…”), whose completions reveal attitudes, motivations and conflicts.
5. Draw-a-Person Test – the person draws a person on a sheet; then a person of the opposite sex; interpreted for features like omission of features, size, etc.

Limitations: need highly trained interpreters; scoring is subjective and time-consuming; reliability and validity are lower.

Projective techniques present ambiguous stimuli onto which a person projects unconscious feelings, motives and conflicts; responses are interpreted qualitatively. Widely used tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study, Sentence Completion Test and Draw-a-Person Test.

Answer

According to Carl Rogers, people need positive regard (love, acceptance) from others. When love and acceptance are given only if the person behaves according to the expectations of others, it is called conditional positive regard (conditions of worth). When love and acceptance are given irrespective of what the person does, it is unconditional positive regard.

Arihant’s family shows conditional positive regard: they claim to love him, but their acceptance depends on his following the family tradition (becoming a doctor) and they disapprove of his own choice (singing).

Consequences (Rogers): - A gap may develop between Arihant’s real self (a person who loves singing) and his ideal self shaped by family’s conditions of worth (a doctor). - This incongruence can lower his self-esteem, create anxiety, dissatisfaction and conflict, and hinder self-actualisation and his becoming a fully functioning person. - If the family gave him unconditional positive regard — accepting and supporting his choice — he could develop a positive self-concept, high self-esteem and realise his potential as a singer.

Arihant’s family shows conditional positive regard — their love depends on his meeting their expectations (becoming a doctor). In Rogers’ terms this creates incongruence between his real and ideal self, lowering self-esteem and blocking self-actualisation; unconditional positive regard would help him grow.

Question Project 1

We all have some notions about our ideal selves. Imagine that you have achieved your ideal self and express your attitudes towards (a) school, (b) friends, (c) family, and (d) money. Ask two friends and two family members to write what they perceive to be your real attitudes towards these categories. Compare your ideal descriptions with others’ real descriptions and prepare a report.

Answer

Guidance for the project

1. Ideal-self descriptions: write one paragraph each on how your ideal self would feel and behave towards school, friends, family and money.
2. Real-self descriptions: give four sheets (one per category) to two friends and two family members; ask them to describe your actual attitudes honestly.
3. Comparison: make a table with columns — Category | My ideal description | Friends’ view | Family’s view | Similar/Dissimilar.
4. Analysis (Rogers): a close match indicates congruence between real and ideal self, associated with high self-esteem and satisfaction; large differences indicate incongruence, which may cause dissatisfaction. Note whether friends and family see you differently (you may show different selves in different settings).
5. Conclusion: reflect on which attitudes you would like to work on to reduce the gap between your real and ideal selves.

Write your ideal attitudes towards school, friends, family and money, collect four others’ descriptions of your real attitudes, compare them in a table, and interpret similarity as congruence (high self-esteem) and differences as incongruence between real and ideal self.

Question Project 2

Select five persons whom you most admire, either from real life or from history. Collect information about their contributions in their respective fields and identify the characteristics in their personality that have impressed you. Do you find any similarities? Prepare a comparative report.

Answer

Sample comparative table

Similarities: high conscientiousness (discipline, hard work), perseverance in the face of difficulties, emotional stability, goal-directed behaviour, humility and concern for others; many show signs of self-actualisation (Maslow).

Report: introduction, sources used (books, biographies, internet), description of each person, table of traits (using Allport/Big Five terms), common traits, and what you have learnt for your own development.

Choose five admired persons, describe their contributions and personality traits, and compare them; common features usually include conscientiousness, perseverance, emotional stability, goal-directedness and concern for others — qualities of self-actualised people.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Self, culture and self-regulation (Q 1, 2)
• ☒ Concept and approaches to personality (Q 3, 4)
• ☒ Psychodynamic and humanistic approaches (Q 5, 6, 7, 11)
• ☒ Assessment of personality (Q 8, 9, 10)
• ☒ Projects (P 1, 2)

Total questions answered: 13 of 13