NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Psychology Chapter 3: Meeting Life Challenges

Chapter at a glance

Exercises

Answer

The word stress comes from the Latin strictus (tight, narrow) and stringere (to tighten). Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to a stimulus event that disturbs its equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. The stimulus events are called stressors.

Key ideas: 1. Stress is not a factor that resides in the individual or the environment; it is a process embedded in the ongoing transaction between the person and the environment. 2. Hans Selye defined stress as “the non-specific response of the body to any demand”. 3. Eustress is healthy, positive stress that motivates and improves performance (e.g. excitement before a competition). Distress is excessive, harmful stress. 4. Lazarus’ cognitive theory: the perception of stress depends on appraisal. In primary appraisal a new or changing environment is assessed as positive, neutral or negative; negative events are appraised for harm/loss, threat or challenge. In secondary appraisal one assesses one’s coping abilities and resources. If resources are inadequate, stress is experienced. So the same event may be stressful for one person and not for another.

Examples from daily life: - Preparing for board exams or a test with little time left. - Getting stuck in a traffic jam when late for school. - Quarrels with friends or siblings. - Shifting to a new school or city. - Loss of a job by a parent, illness or death in the family. - Daily hassles such as overcrowded buses, noise, losing things.

Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to a stimulus event (stressor) that disturbs its equilibrium and exceeds its ability to cope; it depends on primary and secondary appraisal (Lazarus). Examples: exam pressure, traffic jams, quarrels, moving to a new school, illness or loss in the family.

Answer

Symptoms (signs) of stress — people respond differently, but common signs are:

1. Physical – headaches, fatigue, sleep disturbances, high blood pressure, palpitations, digestive problems, muscle tension, lowered immunity.
2. Emotional – anxiety, irritability, mood swings, depression, anger, feelings of helplessness, loss of self-esteem.
3. Cognitive – poor concentration, reduced memory, confusion, negative thinking, difficulty in decision making.
4. Behavioural – changes in eating habits, sleep disruption, increased absenteeism, reduced work performance, withdrawal, use of alcohol, tobacco or drugs.

Sources of stress

1. Life events – major changes in life, both planned (moving house, marriage) and unpredictable (death of a loved one, divorce, loss of job). The more life events, the greater the stress (Holmes and Rahe’s Social Readjustment Rating Scale).
2. Hassles – personal, daily irritations: noise, commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, household chores, electricity and water shortage, traffic. Frequent hassles accumulate to cause stress.
3. Traumatic events – extreme events such as fire, accidents, earthquakes, terrorist attacks, war. Effects may persist as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Types of stress (also sources): physical and environmental (overwork, lack of sleep, pollution, crowding, natural disasters), psychological (frustration, conflict, internal pressure, social pressure) and social (death or illness in the family, strained relationships).

Symptoms: physical (headache, fatigue, sleep problems), emotional (anxiety, irritability, depression), cognitive (poor concentration, memory) and behavioural (changed eating, absenteeism, substance use). Sources: major life events, daily hassles and traumatic events, arising from physical/environmental, psychological and social stressors.

Answer

Hans Selye studied animals exposed to stressors (high temperature, X-rays, insulin) and found the same pattern of bodily response to all of them. He called it the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), with three stages:

1. Alarm reaction stage – the presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. Hormones are released and the sympathetic nervous system produces the “fight or flight” response; heart rate, blood pressure and breathing increase, and the body mobilises its resources.
2. Resistance stage – if stress is prolonged, the body tries to cope with it. The parasympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. Efforts are made to deal with the threat; the organism appears to adapt, but resources are being used up.
3. Exhaustion stage – continued exposure to the same stressor depletes physiological and psychological resources. The person becomes vulnerable to diseases of adaptation (high blood pressure, ulcers, heart disease, weakened immunity), and may break down.

Example: A student who learns a week before the board exams that the syllabus is much larger than expected. - Alarm: panic, racing heart, sleeplessness, burst of energy to study. - Resistance: studies long hours every day, cuts down on sleep and leisure; appears to manage but is constantly tense. - Exhaustion: if pressure continues for weeks (e.g. entrance exams follow immediately), the student may fall ill, feel burnt out, lose concentration and perform poorly.

Relevance: it shows how prolonged stress drains the body’s resources and causes illness, so stressors must be managed early. Limitation: Selye gave little importance to psychological factors (appraisal) — people evaluate and respond to stressors differently.

Selye’s GAS has three stages — alarm reaction (fight or flight, mobilisation of resources), resistance (prolonged effort to cope) and exhaustion (resources depleted, diseases of adaptation). E.g. a student under continuous exam pressure first panics, then studies tensely for weeks, and finally falls ill or burns out.

Answer

Coping is a dynamic, situation-specific reaction to stress — a set of concrete responses to stressful situations intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress.

Endler and Parker’s three coping strategies

1. Task-oriented strategy – obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and their outcome; deciding priorities and acting directly to deal with the situation (e.g. scheduling time better, thinking about how to solve the problem).
2. Emotion-oriented strategy – efforts to maintain hope and control one’s emotions; venting feelings of anger and frustration; or deciding that nothing can be done to change things (e.g. telling oneself it isn’t really happening, blaming oneself, worrying about what to do).
3. Avoidance-oriented strategy – denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation; conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective thoughts (e.g. watching TV, phoning a friend, being with others).

Lazarus and Folkman: coping as a dynamic process — problem-focused coping (attack the problem itself, e.g. making a plan of action, concentrating on the next step) and emotion-focused coping (reduce the negative emotional responses, e.g. doing something to make oneself feel better, seeking emotional support). Problem-focused strategies generally reduce stress more effectively.

Stress management techniques: 1. Relaxation techniques – reduce symptoms of stress and illnesses; progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing. 2. Meditation procedures – yogic methods of focused attention on breathing or a mantra; vipasana (mindfulness) meditation. 3. Biofeedback – monitoring and reducing physiological aspects of stress (e.g. heart rate) through feedback. 4. Creative visualisation – imagining a peaceful scene or the successful achievement of a goal. 5. Cognitive behavioural techniques – e.g. stress inoculation training (Meichenbaum): replace negative, irrational thoughts with positive, rational ones (assessment, stress reduction techniques, application and follow-through). 6. Exercise – stretching, brisk walking, swimming, cycling; improves fitness and reduces stress.

Coping strategies: task-oriented, emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented (Endler and Parker), or problem-focused and emotion-focused (Lazarus and Folkman). Stress management techniques include relaxation, meditation, biofeedback, creative visualisation, cognitive behavioural techniques (stress inoculation) and exercise.

Answer

Stress affects four major areas of psychological functioning:

1. Emotional effects – people under stress often experience mood swings, erratic behaviour that may alienate family and friends, decreasing confidence, anxiety and depression, increased physical and psychological tension, feelings of helplessness.
2. Physiological effects – when the body is under stress, production of hormones like adrenaline and cortisol increases; these change heart rate, blood pressure, metabolism and physical activity. Prolonged stress leads to slowing down of digestion, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate and constriction of blood vessels, and suppresses the immune system.
3. Cognitive effects – if pressures due to stress continue, one suffers from mental overload. High levels of stress lead to poor concentration and reduced short-term memory capacity; decision-making becomes poor; thinking becomes rigid and there are negative thoughts.
4. Behavioural effects – disrupted eating (overeating or under-eating), disrupted sleep, increased absenteeism, reduced work performance, increased intake of caffeine, alcohol, tobacco and drugs.

Other effects: - Burnout – a state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion due to chronic stress, with feelings of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment. - Stress and health – stress is linked to heart disease, high blood pressure, ulcers, asthma, and psychological disorders like anxiety, depression and PTSD; weakened immunity (psychoneuroimmunology).

Stress has emotional effects (mood swings, anxiety, depression), physiological effects (release of adrenaline and cortisol, raised heart rate and blood pressure, lowered immunity), cognitive effects (poor concentration, memory and decision-making) and behavioural effects (disrupted eating and sleep, absenteeism, substance use); chronic stress causes burnout and illness.

Answer

Life skills (WHO) are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. They can be learned and improved. Important life skills:

1. Assertiveness – the ability to clearly and confidently communicate one’s feelings, needs, wants and thoughts; to say “no” to a request, to state an opinion without being self-conscious, to express emotions such as love, anger openly. It leads to self-confidence and self-esteem and a solid sense of identity.
2. Time management – learning to manage time by planning, setting priorities and focusing on what matters most; balancing work and leisure, which reduces pressure and stress.
3. Rational thinking – challenging distorted thinking and irrational beliefs, driving out intrusive negative anxiety-provoking thoughts, and making positive statements.
4. Improving relationships – communication is the key, involving listening (paying attention), expressing (conveying one’s thoughts and feelings), and accepting others’ opinions even if one disagrees; avoiding jealousy and sulking.
5. Self-care – keeping ourselves healthy and relaxed physically, emotionally and psychologically; e.g. correct breathing, a good diet, enough sleep.
6. Overcoming unhelpful habits – perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination are habits that maintain stress; learning to overcome them helps (e.g. perfectionists set unrealistic standards; procrastination postpones tasks).

How they help: they improve coping capacity, reduce vulnerability to stress, build confidence and good relationships, and promote psychological well-being and resilience.

Life skills — assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care and overcoming unhelpful habits (perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination) — help people handle everyday demands, reduce stress, build confidence and relationships, and promote well-being.

Answer

Positive health is not merely the absence of disease; it is a state of physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being. Its constituents are a healthy body, high-quality personal relationships, a sense of purpose in life, self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks and resilience to stress, trauma and change.

Factors that act as stress buffers and promote positive health

1. Diet – a balanced, nutritious diet improves mood, provides energy, keeps the body fit and strengthens immunity; it helps one cope better with stress.
2. Exercise – regular exercise (aerobic activity, stretching, yoga) improves the efficiency of the heart, lungs and muscles, reduces stress-related responses and improves mood.
3. Positive attitude – realistic perception of reality, a sense of purpose and responsibility, accepting and tolerating different viewpoints, taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure.
4. Positive thinking – optimism (tendency to expect favourable outcomes) and hope; positive reappraisal of stressful situations; such people cope better.
5. Social support – the existence and availability of people on whom we can rely, who care for us. It may be tangible (money, goods, services), informational (advice) or emotional (love, empathy). It protects against stress and improves health.
6. Personality factors – hardiness (Kobasa): commitment, control and challenge (the 3 Cs); resilience; internal locus of control.
7. Life skills and coping strategies – assertiveness, time management, rational thinking.
8. Well-being and happiness – having good relationships, spiritual life and a meaningful purpose in life.

Positive health and well-being are promoted by a balanced diet, regular exercise, a positive attitude, positive thinking (optimism and hope), social support (tangible, informational, emotional), hardiness and resilience, and good life skills and coping.

Answer

Psychoneuroimmunology studies the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers from without and within (bacteria, viruses, tumour cells).

Immune cells: white blood cells (leucocytes) identify and destroy foreign bodies. They include T cells (destroy invaders; T-helper cells increase immunological activity), B cells (produce antibodies) and natural killer cells (fight viruses and tumours).

How stress affects immunity

1. Stress affects natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in defence against infections and cancer. Reduced NK cell activity is found in highly stressed people (e.g. students facing exams, bereaved persons, those in poor marriages or caring for very sick family members).
2. Under stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis releases cortisol and other stress hormones, which suppress the functioning of the immune system.
3. Negative emotions (depression, anxiety, hostility) and lack of social support are associated with weaker immune response.
4. Stress also leads to unhealthy behaviours (poor diet, less sleep, smoking, drinking), which further weaken immunity.

Result: People under prolonged stress are more vulnerable to infections (colds, flu), herpes, allergies, slower wound healing and possibly diseases like cancer and heart disease.

Stress weakens the immune system: through the HPA axis it raises cortisol, which suppresses immune cells (T cells, B cells, natural killer cells); reduced NK cell activity and negative emotions make stressed people more prone to infections and illness — the field of psychoneuroimmunology.

Answer

Example: Shifting with family to a new city and joining a new school in Class 12.

Why different people experience different degrees of stress

1. Cognitive appraisal (Lazarus) – one student may appraise the move as a threat (losing friends, adjusting to new teachers), another as a challenge or opportunity (new friends, better school).
2. Coping resources (secondary appraisal) – a student with good social skills, academic preparation and confidence feels less stress than one who lacks them.
3. Personality – extraverts and hardy people (commitment, control, challenge), optimists and those with internal locus of control adjust more easily than anxious, introverted or pessimistic people.
4. Social support – supportive parents, siblings and helpful new classmates reduce stress.
5. Past experiences – someone who has moved before and adjusted well finds it less stressful.
6. Timing and other stressors – moving in a board exam year, or along with other life changes (illness, financial problems), increases stress; the number of life events adds up.
7. Predictability and control – a planned move that the student had a say in is less stressful than a sudden, forced move.
8. Physical health and life skills – good health, time management and assertiveness help.

E.g. shifting to a new city and school in Class 12. The degree of stress differs because of cognitive appraisal (threat vs challenge), coping resources, personality (hardiness, optimism), social support, past experience, timing and other simultaneous stressors, and the predictability and control over the event.

Answer

Suggestions to friends:

1. Plan and manage time – make a timetable, set priorities, break big tasks into smaller ones and avoid procrastination.
2. Use task-oriented / problem-focused coping – identify the problem, gather information, think of alternatives and act on it rather than worrying.
3. Think rationally and positively – challenge negative thoughts (“I will fail”) and replace them with realistic, positive self-statements; see difficulties as challenges.
4. Be assertive – learn to say “no” to unreasonable demands and express feelings openly but politely.
5. Seek social support – share problems with family, friends or teachers; help others too.
6. Relaxation and meditation – practise deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, yoga and meditation daily.
7. Exercise regularly – walking, sports, cycling or dance.
8. Healthy lifestyle – balanced diet, adequate sleep, avoid excess caffeine, junk food, tobacco and alcohol.
9. Hobbies and leisure – music, reading, art, spending time in nature.
10. Avoid perfectionism – set realistic goals, accept that mistakes are part of learning.
11. Seek professional help (counsellor) if stress becomes overwhelming.

Manage time and priorities, tackle problems directly, think rationally and positively, be assertive, seek social support, practise relaxation, yoga and meditation, exercise, eat and sleep well, pursue hobbies, avoid perfectionism and procrastination, and seek professional help when needed.

Answer

(a) Environmental factors with a positive impact on well-being: 1. Clean air, water and green surroundings (parks, trees) – reduce stress and improve health and mood. 2. Adequate living space and good housing. 3. Quiet surroundings, natural light, pleasant weather. 4. Supportive family and friends, cohesive neighbourhood (social environment), safe community. 5. Good educational and health facilities, opportunities for recreation, sports and cultural activities. 6. Economic security and a pleasant workplace.

(b) Environmental factors with a negative effect: 1. Pollution – air, water and noise pollution cause illness, irritability and stress. 2. Crowding – lack of personal space causes discomfort, aggression and stress. 3. Natural disasters – floods, earthquakes, cyclones cause trauma (PTSD). 4. Extreme weather – heat, cold. 5. Daily hassles – traffic jams, long commutes, electricity and water shortages. 6. Poverty, poor sanitation, unsafe neighbourhoods, violence and conflict in the family or community.

These are called environmental stressors; some are continuous (pollution, crowding) and others are unpredictable (disasters).

1. Positive: clean air and water, greenery, adequate space, quiet, supportive family and community, good facilities and economic security. (b) Negative: pollution, noise, crowding, natural disasters, extreme weather, daily hassles, poverty and violence.

Answer

Even though people know the harmful effects of smoking, unhealthy diet, lack of exercise and stress, they find it hard to change because:

1. Immediate pleasure vs delayed harm – unhealthy behaviours (smoking, junk food, drinking) give immediate pleasure or relief from stress, while their harmful effects appear only after many years; people prefer immediate gratification.
2. Habit and addiction – behaviours such as smoking, overeating or excessive screen use become habits; nicotine, alcohol and caffeine are physically addictive, with withdrawal symptoms.
3. Optimistic bias / denial – people believe “it won’t happen to me” and underestimate personal risk.
4. Stress itself – people under stress use unhealthy behaviours as coping (avoidance or emotion-focused coping), creating a vicious cycle.
5. Lack of self-control/motivation – difficulty in delaying gratification and maintaining effort; low self-efficacy (believing one cannot change).
6. Social and cultural influences – peer pressure, family habits, advertising, fast-paced work culture with long hours and no time for exercise.
7. Lack of social support and resources (time, money, facilities).
8. Unhelpful habits – procrastination (“I will start exercising from Monday”), avoidance.

Change needs awareness, self-regulation, goal setting, social support and gradual replacement of unhealthy habits with healthy ones.

We fail to change because unhealthy behaviours give immediate pleasure while harm is delayed, habits and addiction are strong, we deny personal risk (optimistic bias), use such behaviours to cope with stress, lack self-control and self-efficacy, and face peer, cultural and lifestyle pressures with little support.

Question Project 1

Record the stresses in the lives of 5–10 teenagers. Are these different for girls and boys? Find out the ways by which they cope with them.

Answer

Guidance

1. Sample: 5–10 teenagers (both boys and girls), with consent; keep identities confidential.
2. Tool: a short questionnaire/interview — (i) What things cause you stress? (studies/exams, career choice, parents’ expectations, peer relations, body image, romantic relationships, social media, family problems, safety); (ii) How often? (iii) What do you do when stressed?
3. Recording: make a table of stressors and coping strategies for each respondent.
4. Analysis:
   • Compare stressors of boys and girls (e.g. girls may report more stress about safety, restrictions and body image; boys about career pressure and performance — note what your data actually shows).
   • Classify coping as task-oriented, emotion-oriented or avoidance-oriented (Endler and Parker).
   • Note which coping strategies seem more effective.
5. Conclusion: summarise common stressors, gender differences, and suggest healthy coping strategies (time management, social support, relaxation, exercise).

Interview 5–10 boys and girls about their stressors and coping, tabulate the data, compare gender differences, classify coping as task-, emotion- or avoidance-oriented, and suggest healthier strategies.

Question Project 2

Discuss with your parents and grandparents the unique stressors they face in their lives and how they cope with them.

Answer

Guidance

1. Interview parents and grandparents separately about the main stressors in their lives, now and when they were young, and how they handle them.
2. Likely stressors:
   • Parents: job pressure, financial responsibilities, children’s education and careers, care of elderly parents, work–family balance, health.
   • Grandparents: health problems, loneliness, loss of spouse/friends, financial dependence, feeling neglected, adjusting to changes in technology and values.
3. Coping strategies: prayer and spirituality, yoga and walks, family support, talking to friends, hobbies, planning finances, acceptance; note any unhealthy coping (smoking, withdrawal).
4. Compare the stressors and coping across generations, and with your own (teenage) stressors.
5. Conclusion: stressors differ by life stage; coping depends on experience, social support and cultural practices; reflect on how you can support them.

Interview parents and grandparents about their stressors (work, finances, children, health, loneliness) and coping (spirituality, yoga, family support, hobbies), compare across generations, and reflect on how coping depends on life stage, social support and culture.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Nature, symptoms and sources of stress (Q 1, 2, 9, 11)
• ☒ Effects of stress, GAS, immune system (Q 3, 5, 8)
• ☒ Coping and stress management (Q 4, 10, 12)
• ☒ Life skills and positive health (Q 6, 7)
• ☒ Projects (P 1, 2)

Total questions answered: 14 of 14