NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Social Change and Development in India Chapter 4: Change and Development in Rural Society

Chapter at a glance

Exercises

Answer

(i) Why the maliks could use state power: 1. The maliks were landowners belonging to a dominant (upper) caste; their economic power (land and wealth) and caste power gave them influence over local institutions. 2. They had social and kinship networks with officials, police, politicians and the judiciary, who often belonged to the same upper castes. 3. They were educated and knew how to deal with the administration and courts; they could bribe or pressure officials. 4. As a powerful vote bank and source of funds, they influenced politicians, who in turn directed the police and administration in their favour. 5. The labourers, being poor, illiterate and of low caste, had no access to state institutions, so the state machinery effectively worked for the maliks (e.g. police help to suppress labour protests, evictions).

(ii) Why labourers had harsh working conditions: 1. Landlessness – labourers owned no land and depended entirely on the maliks for employment, so they had no bargaining power. 2. Low caste status – most labourers were Dalits or lower castes; caste hierarchy made them subordinate and subject to humiliation and exploitation. 3. Debt bondage – they borrowed from the maliks and were tied to them through debt; they had to work at very low wages. 4. Surplus labour and lack of alternatives – no other jobs in the village; migration was difficult. 5. State support to maliks – police and administration took the side of the landlords, so labourers could not resist. 6. Hence they got very low (often below minimum) wages, long hours, insecure work and were treated badly.

1. The maliks could use state power because their land, wealth and dominant-caste status gave them social networks with, and influence over, officials, police and politicians (often of the same castes), and as educated, resourceful people they could pressure or bribe the administration. (ii) Labourers faced harsh conditions because they were landless, low-caste, often in debt bondage, lacked alternative jobs and bargaining power, and the state sided with the landlords.

Answer

Measures taken by the government: 1. Land reforms – abolition of zamindari, tenancy reforms, land ceiling laws and redistribution of surplus land to the landless (partially implemented). 2. Minimum Wages Act (1948) – fixes minimum wages for agricultural work. 3. Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976 – abolishes bonded labour. 4. Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act 1979 (now part of the labour codes) – registration of contractors, wages and facilities for migrant workers. 5. MGNREGA (2005) – guarantees 100 days of wage employment a year to rural households, reducing distress migration and raising rural wages. 6. Social security – pensions, insurance (e.g. PM Shram Yogi Maan-dhan), e-Shram portal for unorganised workers, the Unorganised Workers’ Social Security Act 2008. 7. Public Distribution System and One Nation One Ration Card – food security for migrants. 8. Housing schemes (PMAY), health insurance (Ayushman Bharat).

Measures the government should take: 1. Strict enforcement of minimum wage laws and abolition of bonded labour. 2. Effective land redistribution and secure tenancy rights. 3. Registration of all migrant workers and portability of benefits (ration, health, education for children) across states. 4. Decent housing, sanitation and health care at work sites; crèches and schools for children of migrants. 5. Regulation of contractors (mukadams) to prevent exploitation; timely payment of wages. 6. Skill development and non-farm employment in rural areas. 7. Organising workers into unions and cooperatives; legal aid and grievance redressal. 8. Social security – pension, accident insurance and maternity benefits.

The government has enacted land reforms, the Minimum Wages Act, the abolition of bonded labour, laws on inter-state migrant workers, MGNREGA, social security schemes and portable ration cards. It should enforce these strictly, redistribute land, register migrants with portable benefits, ensure housing, health and schooling at work sites, regulate contractors, create rural non-farm jobs and support workers’ organisations.

Answer

1. Landlessness – most agricultural workers own little or no land, the main productive asset in rural areas, so they cannot accumulate wealth.
2. Low and irregular wages – wages are often below the legal minimum and work is seasonal, leaving them in poverty with no savings.
3. Indebtedness and bondage – they borrow from landlords and moneylenders for basic needs, festivals or illness, and get trapped in debt, sometimes working as bonded labour.
4. Caste – most agricultural labourers belong to Dalit, adivasi and lower castes; caste discrimination restricts their access to land, education, jobs and social networks.
5. Lack of education and skills – poverty forces children to work, so they cannot get education or skills needed for better jobs; the cycle continues across generations.
6. Insecure employment – mechanisation and the Green Revolution reduced demand for labour; casualisation and contract labour increased.
7. Lack of bargaining power and organisation – they are unorganised and dependent on landowners, and the state often supports landowners.
8. Distress migration – they migrate seasonally as “footloose labour” under poor conditions, with no security or benefits.
9. Poor health and nutrition – reduces their capacity to work and earn.

Linkages include landlessness, low and seasonal wages, debt and bondage, low caste status and discrimination, lack of education and skills (children forced to work), insecure casual employment due to mechanisation, lack of organisation and bargaining power, distress migration and poor health — all of which trap agricultural workers in poverty across generations.

Answer

Factors: 1. Ownership of land – groups that were already middle or large landowners (often the dominant castes) benefited most from agricultural development. 2. Land reforms – abolition of zamindari transferred ownership from absentee landlords to the tenant-cultivator castes who actually farmed the land (e.g. Jats, Yadavs, Kurmis, Kammas, Reddys). 3. Green Revolution – those with land, irrigation and capital could invest in HYV seeds, fertilisers, tractors and tube-wells, raising productivity and profits. 4. Commercialisation of agriculture – growing cash crops (sugarcane, cotton, tobacco) for the market. 5. Investment of agricultural surplus in non-farm businesses — rice mills, sugar factories, cinemas, transport, construction, real estate, trade and industry. 6. Education – investing in children’s education enabled them to enter professions and government jobs. 7. Political power – these groups became politically dominant through democratic politics and used their influence to get state support (loans, subsidies, licences). 8. Cooperatives – sugar cooperatives (Maharashtra), dairy cooperatives (Gujarat) strengthened them.

Examples: - Kammas and Reddys of coastal Andhra Pradesh – invested agricultural surplus from the Green Revolution in cinema, business, industry and later IT; became politically dominant. - Patidars of Gujarat – from agriculture to business, industry and overseas trade. - Jats of Punjab and Haryana; Marathas in Maharashtra (sugar cooperatives); Gounders of Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) – from agriculture into textiles and engineering. - Vokkaligas and Lingayats in Karnataka.

Factors include prior land ownership, land reforms that made tenant castes owners, the Green Revolution and commercial crops, investment of agricultural surplus in non-farm businesses, education, cooperatives and political power. Examples: Kammas and Reddys of Andhra Pradesh, Patidars of Gujarat, Jats of Punjab–Haryana, Marathas of Maharashtra, and Gounders of Coimbatore.

Answer

(Sample answer — students may choose other films.)

Film: Do Bigha Zamin (1953, Bimal Roy) - Agrarian society shown: Shambhu, a poor peasant with two bighas of land, is in debt to the village zamindar, who wants his land for a factory. Shambhu cannot repay the inflated debt; he goes to Calcutta to earn money as a rickshaw puller, but finally loses his land. - Themes: landlord dominance, indebtedness, land alienation, poverty, distress migration to cities, the exploitation of peasants by moneylenders, the impact of industrialisation, and the strength of family bonds. - Realism: quite realistic — it reflected the actual condition of small peasants after independence: debt bondage, power of landlords, failure of land reforms and migration to cities.

Other examples: Mother India (1957) – moneylender exploitation and a peasant woman’s struggle; Lagaan (2001) – colonial land revenue and drought (romanticised); Peepli Live (2010) – farmer suicides and media; Swades (2004) – rural electricity and caste.

Recent films: Recent mainstream films are mostly set in urban areas or abroad, with fewer realistic depictions of rural life (though some OTT series and regional films do show villages).

Explanation: the film industry targets urban, middle-class and overseas audiences (multiplex viewers) who are seen as the main paying market; globalisation and consumerism have shifted themes to urban lifestyles; rural areas are often shown romantically (weddings, festivals) rather than realistically; and agrarian issues are seen as less “glamorous”.

Sample: Do Bigha Zamin (1953) shows a small peasant in debt to a zamindar, losing his land and migrating to Calcutta as a rickshaw puller — a realistic portrayal of landlord power, indebtedness and distress migration. Recent mainstream films are mostly urban because the industry targets urban, multiplex and overseas audiences, and rural life is often shown romantically rather than realistically.

Answer

(Guidance and typical findings.)

Method: visit a construction site or brick kiln (with permission), talk politely to a few workers and note their answers on: home state/district, how they came, wages, working hours, housing, family, life in the village and reasons for migration.

Typical findings: 1. Where they come from – often from poorer states and districts: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, eastern UP, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal. 2. Recruitment – through a mukadam (labour contractor/middleman), often from their own region or caste, who recruits workers from villages, gives them an advance (loan), arranges transport, and brings them in groups (often whole families) to the work site. The mukadam negotiates with the employer, supervises work, pays wages after deducting the advance and his commission. Workers are often tied to him through debt. 3. Working conditions – long hours, low and delayed wages, piece-rate payment (e.g. per 1000 bricks), no job security, no social security, unsafe work, temporary shelters without proper water, sanitation or health care; children often work or miss school; women paid less. 4. Life in villages – small or no landholding, seasonal agricultural work for a few months, debt, droughts, low wages, caste discrimination and lack of non-farm jobs. 5. Why they migrate – lack of work and income in the village, landlessness, debt, crop failure, and the availability of cash wages in cities; many migrate seasonally and return for harvest or festivals (“circulation of labour”, Jan Breman’s “footloose labour”).

Typically, migrant workers come from poorer states (Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, eastern UP), recruited through a mukadam — a labour contractor who gives an advance, transports workers and supervises them, often binding them through debt. They migrate because of landlessness, seasonal unemployment, debt, drought and lack of non-farm jobs in villages, and work in poor conditions with low wages and no security.

Answer

(Guidance and typical findings.)

Questions to ask: names of fruits sold; where each comes from (local, other states, imported); prices per kg; changes in prices and demand after imports; whether imported fruits are cheaper or costlier.

Typical findings: 1. Sources – local and seasonal fruits (bananas, guavas, mangoes, papayas) from nearby areas; apples from Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir; oranges from Nagpur; grapes from Nashik; imported fruits like apples from Washington (USA), Australia, New Zealand, China; kiwis from New Zealand; dragon fruit, avocados, oranges and pears from various countries. 2. Prices – imported fruits are usually more expensive but look attractive and are available all year round due to cold storage; some imported apples (e.g. from China) may be cheaper than Indian apples in some seasons. 3. Impact on local products – after imports increased (following trade liberalisation and WTO), Indian apple growers in Himachal and Kashmir face competition; local prices may fall or remain stagnant during the season, affecting farmers’ incomes. Urban consumers prefer imported fruits as status symbols. 4. Globalisation – shows how liberalisation has integrated Indian agriculture into the global market, benefiting some consumers but putting pressure on small farmers.

Typically, local and seasonal fruits come from nearby areas and other states (Himachal apples, Nagpur oranges, Nashik grapes), while imported fruits come from the USA, Australia, New Zealand and China. Imported fruits are usually costlier but available all year; some (e.g. Chinese apples) can be cheaper and compete with Indian produce, lowering prices for local growers — an effect of globalisation and trade liberalisation.

Answer

Report: Environmental Situation in Rural India

1. Pesticides and chemical fertilisers: The Green Revolution encouraged heavy use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. This has led to soil degradation, contamination of water and food, and health problems — e.g. high rates of cancer in Punjab’s Malwa region (“cancer train” from Bathinda); deaths of farmers due to pesticide poisoning (e.g. Yavatmal, Maharashtra, 2017); endosulfan tragedy in Kasaragod (Kerala).

2. Declining water table: Excessive extraction of groundwater through tube-wells for water-intensive crops (paddy, sugarcane), encouraged by free/cheap electricity, has caused water tables to fall sharply in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Wells go dry, drinking water becomes scarce, small farmers who cannot afford deeper wells suffer, and arsenic and fluoride contamination increases.

3. Prawn farming in coastal areas: Commercial aquaculture (prawn farms) in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and West Bengal has caused salinisation of agricultural land and groundwater, destruction of mangroves, pollution from chemicals and loss of livelihoods for traditional fishermen and farmers.

4. Salination and waterlogging: In canal-irrigated areas (e.g. Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Tungabhadra), over-irrigation and poor drainage have caused waterlogging and salinity, making land infertile.

5. Loss of biodiversity: Monoculture of HYV crops replaced thousands of traditional varieties of rice, millets and pulses; deforestation, mining and use of pesticides have reduced birds, insects (including pollinators) and wildlife; traditional knowledge is lost.

6. Other issues: stubble burning in Punjab–Haryana causing air pollution; deforestation; soil erosion; climate change leading to erratic rainfall, droughts and floods.

Responses: organic and natural farming (Sikkim is fully organic), watershed management, rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, crop diversification, people’s movements (e.g. against prawn farming; Navdanya for seed conservation).

Sources: State of India’s Environment reports (Centre for Science and Environment), Down to Earth magazine.

Rural India faces serious environmental problems: soil and health damage from excessive pesticides and fertilisers (e.g. cancer in Punjab), falling water tables from over-pumping for paddy and sugarcane, salinisation and mangrove loss from prawn farming, waterlogging and salinity in canal areas, loss of crop and wildlife biodiversity, stubble burning and climate stress — calling for organic farming, water conservation and crop diversification.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Agrarian structure, caste and class (Q 1, 3)
• ☒ Labourers and migrant workers (Q 2, 6)
• ☒ Emergence of new dominant classes (Q 4)
• ☒ Rural society in films; globalisation and agriculture (Q 5, 7)
• ☒ Rural environment (Q 8)

Total questions answered: 8 of 8