NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Sociology Social Change and Development in India Chapter 5: Change and Development in Industrial Society

Chapter at a glance

Exercises

Answer

(Sample answer — students may choose any occupation, such as domestic work, construction, security guards, delivery workers, shop assistants or call centre work.)

Occupation: Construction workers at a building site

a) Social composition of the workforce: - Caste – mostly from Dalit, adivasi and OBC communities; supervisors and contractors often from intermediate or upper castes. - Gender – both men and women; men work as masons, carpenters, bar-benders; women mostly as unskilled helpers carrying bricks, cement and sand (head-load workers) and are paid less. - Age – mostly young adults (18–40 years); some older workers and children accompanying their parents (sometimes working, though illegal). - Region – mostly migrants from poorer states (Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, eastern UP, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal) and from rural areas of the same state.

b) Labour process: - Workers are recruited through a contractor/mukadam, often from their home region. - Work is organised in teams under a supervisor: skilled workers (masons, carpenters, electricians, plumbers) and unskilled helpers. - Tasks: digging foundations, mixing concrete, laying bricks, carrying materials, plastering, fixing steel rods; increasingly with machines (concrete mixers, cranes). - Work is temporary — lasting until the project ends; workers then move to another site.

c) Wages and other benefits: - Daily wages; skilled workers earn more than unskilled; women earn less than men for similar work. - Wages paid weekly or monthly through the contractor, who may deduct advances and commission; delays are common. - Few benefits — usually no provident fund, health insurance, paid leave or job security, though Construction Workers’ Welfare Boards exist (registration is low).

d) Working conditions: - Long hours (8–12 hours), often seven days a week; short breaks for meals. - Safety – high risk of accidents (falls from height, injuries from machines), often without helmets, safety belts or nets; exposure to dust, heat and cement causing health problems. - Living conditions – temporary tin shelters at the site, without proper water, toilets or electricity; children lack schooling and crèches. - Seasonal work; no union; vulnerable to exploitation.

This shows the features of the unorganised sector: insecurity, low wages, lack of benefits and dependence on contractors.

Sample — construction workers: (a) mostly Dalit, adivasi and OBC migrants from poorer states, young men and women (women as low-paid helpers); (b) recruited through contractors, working in teams of skilled masons and unskilled helpers on temporary projects; (c) daily wages, lower for women, paid through contractors, with few benefits; (d) long hours, high accident risk without safety gear, dust and heat, and poor temporary housing — typical of the unorganised sector.

Answer

Since 1991, the Indian government has followed a policy of liberalisation — privatisation, disinvestment of public sector units, opening up to foreign investment and reducing controls. Its effects on employment:

1. Growth of the services sector and IT – rapid growth of jobs in software, IT-enabled services, call centres (BPOs), banking, telecom, retail and hospitality. This created well-paid jobs for educated, English-speaking urban youth and a new middle class.
2. Decline of public sector employment – disinvestment and privatisation reduced government and public sector jobs, which were secure and had benefits; voluntary retirement schemes (VRS) were introduced.
3. Informalisation and contractualisation – companies increasingly hire workers on contract or casual basis through contractors, even in the organised sector, to reduce costs; permanent jobs with security and benefits have declined. Over 90% of the workforce remains in the unorganised sector.
4. Outsourcing and sub-contracting – large companies outsource production to small units and home-based workers (e.g. garments, bidi rolling, auto parts), where wages are low and labour laws are not followed.
5. Closure of old industries – many traditional industries (e.g. textile mills in Mumbai) closed or downsized due to competition, causing job losses.
6. “Jobless growth” – economic growth has been faster than growth of employment, especially in manufacturing.
7. Weakening of trade unions – contract and informal workers are hard to organise; labour laws have been relaxed (new labour codes) to give “flexibility” to employers.
8. Women’s employment – new jobs for women in IT, BPOs, garments and services, but often low-paid and insecure; female labour participation overall has been low.
9. Increased migration to cities for jobs in construction, services and manufacturing.
10. Work culture – long hours, flexible time, performance-based pay and job insecurity in private and IT sectors.

Liberalisation has expanded jobs in services and IT for the educated, but reduced secure public sector jobs; increased contract, casual and outsourced (including home-based) work and informalisation; closed old industries; led to “jobless growth” in manufacturing; weakened trade unions; created new but often insecure jobs for women; and increased migration and job insecurity.

Topic checklist

• ☒ Occupations, labour process and working conditions (Q 1)
• ☒ Liberalisation and employment (Q 2)

Total questions answered: 2 of 2