NCERT Solutions Class 9 Social Science (Understanding Society: India and Beyond, Part I) Chapter 4 – Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation
Circle of Learning • New NCERT textbook (2026-27) • In-text questions, activities and end-of-chapter questions – complete answers
The Big Questions
How did humans live on Earth before the beginning of civilisation?
Answer
Early humans lived as hunter–gatherers, using stone tools such as handaxes, cleavers and scrapers to hunt animals, dig tubers and process food, and lived in caves, rock shelters or open camps. Later, Mesolithic people used microliths and depended heavily on fishing, and Neolithic people began farming, domesticating animals and living in villages.
Answer
How did humans communicate before writing was invented?
Before writing, humans communicated through speech, gestures and symbols. Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic people developed symbolic communication: they painted the walls of caves and rock shelters (as at Bhimbetka), decorated their bodies with pigments, made beads and engraved symbols on bones and ostrich eggshells.
Answer
How is archaeology helpful in understanding our past?
More than 99 per cent of human history happened before writing, so archaeology is the main source for this period. Archaeologists excavate sites and study tools, bones, fossils, pottery and art, and even make and use similar tools to understand how our ancestors lived, what they ate and how they changed over time.
Answer
How did early civilisations interact with each other?
Early civilisations interacted mainly through trade. Akkadian records of King Sargon mention trade with Dilmun (Bahrain), Magan (Oman) and Meluhha (generally identified with the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation), involving semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust and probably copper. Later, the Silk Route connected China with India and West Asia.
Let's Explore (Page 62)
Observe the Harappan seal carefully and discuss why the script has not yet been deciphered. Also, find out what efforts have been made to decipher it.
Answer
Why not deciphered
(i) No bilingual inscription (like Egypt's Rosetta Stone) has been found that gives the same text in a known script.
(ii) Most inscriptions are very short, usually only a few signs on seals and pottery, so there is too little text to find patterns.
(iii) We do not know which language the Harappans spoke.
(iv) It has several hundred signs, and many appear only rarely.
Efforts made: Scholars have prepared catalogues of all known inscriptions, such as the concordance of signs by Iravatham Mahadevan and the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions by Asko Parpola and others. Researchers have studied the direction of writing (generally right to left), the frequency and position of signs, and used computer-based statistical analysis. Many theories link it to early Dravidian or Indo-Aryan languages, but none is accepted by all scholars.
Think About It (Page 65)
Why do you think early humans left Africa to migrate to other regions?
Answer
Early humans probably left Africa in search of food, water and new hunting grounds, following the movement of animals. Population growth and competition for resources may have pushed groups outward. Climatic changes also mattered: during wetter interglacial periods, the Sahara and Arabian deserts became greener, opening routes out of Africa. Their tools (handaxes and cleavers) helped them adapt to new environments.
Let's Explore (Page 66)
Observe the skulls in Fig. 4.6. Do you notice any changes in the shape or features of the skulls across different ancestors? Can you observe a gradual straightening of the face?
Answer
Yes. From Homo habilis to Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, the braincase becomes larger and more rounded, the forehead becomes higher, the heavy brow ridges become smaller, and the jaws and teeth become smaller. The face projects forward less and becomes flatter and more vertical, so there is a gradual straightening of the face, with a distinct chin appearing in Homo sapiens. These changes reflect a growing brain and changes in diet and tool use.
Think About It (Page 67)
Why do you think the shift to farming during the Neolithic period is called a revolution rather than a simple change? Discuss with your classmates.
Answer
It is called a revolution because it transformed almost every part of human life. People moved from collecting food to producing it by domesticating plants and animals. This led to settled villages, surplus food, pottery, new tools for food production and processing, population growth, ownership of land and new social roles. Surplus production laid the foundation for towns and civilisations, a change far deeper and more permanent than a simple improvement.
Think About It (Page 71)
Observe the chart (Fig. 4.14) and identify the animals that were domesticated. Also try and identify the types of human habitats and objects that were used. Are any of these still used in present times?
(i) Animals domesticated: Cattle (including the humped zebu in India, and oxen/cows in West Africa and West Asia) and pigs (in North and South China).
(ii) Habitats: Round huts with thatched conical roofs (West Africa, India, China), rectangular mud-brick houses (West Asia) and thatched houses raised on posts (South China).
(iii) Objects: Clay pots and baskets (pottery), and farming tools such as hoes, digging sticks and sickles.
Answer
(iv) Still in use: Yes. Earthen pots, thatched and mud houses, baskets, hoes and sickles are still used in many Indian villages, and cattle and pigs are still reared. Crops like millets, rice, wheat and barley are still staple foods.
Don't Miss Out and Think About It (Page 76)
Harappans followed a standard system of weights (binary multiples like 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 for smaller units and multiples of ten for larger ones). Can you imagine how long-distance trade would have been affected had the Harappans not followed a standard system of weights?
Answer
Without standard weights, each region would measure goods differently, so traders could not be sure they were getting a fair quantity. This would lead to cheating, disputes and loss of trust between distant traders. Fixing prices and taxes would be difficult, and trade with far-off regions such as Mesopotamia would become slow and risky. Standard weights made trade fair, quick and reliable across the large Harappan area.
Think About It (Page 77)
Why were rivers important in the growth of early civilisations?
Answer
Rivers provided fresh water for drinking and irrigation, and their floods deposited fertile alluvial soil that produced surplus crops. They supplied fish and served as routes for transport and trade. Surplus food supported craftspeople, traders and rulers, leading to cities. That is why the Harappan, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese civilisations all grew in river plains.
Let's Explore (Page 79)
Can you find out which countries constitute West Asia in present times?
Answer
West Asia includes Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen. Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia are also often included.
Let's Explore (Page 80)
Do you find any similarities between the temples in India and those of the Sumerian civilisation as centres of socio-cultural and economic activity?
Answer
Yes. Like the Sumerian ziggurat, which stood at the centre of the city and controlled agriculture, trade and storage of wealth, many Indian temples were centres of economic and social life. Temples such as the Bṛihadīśhvara temple at Thanjavur owned land, received donations, employed priests, musicians, dancers and artisans, stored wealth, and organised festivals and fairs. Towns like Madurai and Puri grew around temples. In both cases, priests had a special status and temples combined religion with economy and culture.
Let Us Recall (Page 81)
The cuneiform writing system was contemporary to the Harappan script, but while cuneiform has been deciphered, the Harappan script has not. Do you think our understanding of a civilisation changes when its script is deciphered compared to when it is not?
Answer
Yes, greatly. Because cuneiform can be read, we know about Mesopotamian kings, laws (such as the Code of Hammurabi), myths and epics, hymns, trade, and records of farmers and craftspeople. For the Harappans, we depend only on material remains like cities, seals, pottery and beads, so we do not know their rulers' names, their language, beliefs or political system with certainty. Deciphering the script would turn many guesses into evidence-based knowledge.
Let's Explore (Page 82)
The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest stories written. Try and find out more such stories and share them in class.
Answer
Some early stories and texts:
(i) Enuma Elish – the Babylonian creation story.
(ii) Atrahasis – a Mesopotamian story of a great flood.
(iii) The Tale of Sinuhe and The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor – stories from ancient Egypt (the chapter also mentions Egyptian stories linked to 'Sindbad the Sailor' and 'Cinderella').
(iv) The hymns of the Ṛigveda from India, one of the oldest surviving texts in the world.
Gilgamesh itself tells of a king of Uruk who searches for immortality after his friend Enkidu's death and learns that humans must accept death.
Think About It (Page 86)
Why do you think there is a scale with a heart on one side and a feather on the other (Fig. 4.29)? What can this papyrus tell us about early Egyptian beliefs?
Answer
The scene shows the 'weighing of the heart' after death. Egyptians believed the heart recorded a person's good and bad deeds. It was weighed against the feather of Maat, the symbol of truth and justice. If the heart was lighter than or equal to the feather, the person had lived a just life and could enter the afterlife; if heavier, it was destroyed. This shows that Egyptians believed in life after death, judgement by gods, and the importance of living truthfully – which also explains practices such as mummification.
Let's Map
Can you locate the River Nile on the given map? Why do you think the northern part is called Lower Egypt and the southern part Upper Egypt?
Answer
The Nile flows from south to north through Egypt and enters the Mediterranean Sea through its delta, near Giza, Memphis and Heliopolis. The south is called Upper Egypt because it lies upstream, at a higher level, where the river begins its course through Egypt. The north is called Lower Egypt because it lies downstream, on low-lying land near the delta and the sea. The names follow the flow of the river, not the direction on the map.
Let's Explore (Page 87)
Look at the social hierarchy pyramid (Fig. 4.32). What were the social classes of early Egypt? What were the different kinds of occupations? What could have been a typical daily routine of the people from each class?
Answer
Class | Occupations | Typical daily routine (sample) |
|---|---|---|
Pharaoh | Ruler, believed to be divine; head of government, army and religion | Performing rituals in temples, meeting officials, giving orders on taxes, building projects and war |
Government officials, nobles and priests | Administrators, tax collectors, scribes, priests serving gods | Keeping records, collecting taxes, supervising workers, conducting temple ceremonies |
Free landholders, artisans and merchants | Farmers, craftspeople (potters, carpenters, jewellers), traders | Working in fields or workshops, selling goods in markets, paying taxes |
Serfs and slaves | Labourers on farms, building sites (pyramids, canals) and in households | Long hours of hard physical labour under supervision, with little freedom |
Think About It (Page 88)
Observe the images (Fig. 4.33). What do they tell you about Egyptian fashion? Which social classes do you think used these items? What clues in the images help you to make this guess?
Answer
The images show sandals woven from plant fibres such as papyrus or palm leaves, a woven basket and a painted pottery jar. They show that Egyptians used light, natural materials suited to their hot climate, and valued neat craftsmanship and decoration. The simple woven sandals and basket were probably used by ordinary people – farmers, artisans and merchants – because they are made from cheap, locally available plants. The finely painted jar with figures may have belonged to wealthier families, since decoration needed skilled artisans and more cost. Richer classes are also known to have used finer linen, jewellery and leather or decorated sandals.
Chinese Civilisation (In-text Question)
You have already seen in the case of Mesopotamia and Egypt how rivers helped civilisations grow. Can you recall how they supported people's lives?
Answer
The Tigris, Euphrates and Nile provided water for irrigation through canals, ditches and reservoirs, and their floods left fertile soil (Egypt's black 'kemet') for growing crops. Rivers supported transport and trade, and counting the days between Nile floods helped Egyptians develop a calendar. Building dams and canals required collective effort, which encouraged the growth of local government.
Let's Explore (Page 90)
The Chinese script is logographic. Explore more examples of Chinese characters that resemble the objects or ideas they represent. Note down at least two such characters and explain how their shapes are connected to their meanings.
(i) 山 (shān) – mountain: The three upright strokes look like three peaks rising from the ground.
(ii) 日 (rì) – sun: It was originally drawn as a circle with a dot in the middle; it became a box with a line inside.
(iii) 月 (yuè) – moon: It developed from a drawing of a crescent moon.
(iv) 口 (kǒu) – mouth: A square shape like an open mouth.
Answer
(The book's examples are 人 'person', which looks like a person walking with two legs, and 木 'tree', showing a trunk with branches and roots.)
Think About It (Page 92)
What could have been the other reasons for building the Great Wall of China? Explore and share your findings on the Great Wall through a model or presentation.
Answer
Besides defence against nomadic raids, the Great Wall helped to: (i) control and tax trade and travel along routes such as the Silk Route; (ii) mark and protect the empire's borders; (iii) send quick messages using smoke and fire signals from watchtowers; (iv) serve as a raised road for moving soldiers and supplies through mountains; and (v) show the power of rulers, especially the Qin emperor who joined the earlier walls.
Model/presentation idea: Make a section of the wall with clay or cardboard showing the wall, watchtowers and gates on a hilly base, with a chart of key dates: walls built from 680 BCE, joined later, and repaired and expanded till the 17th century CE.
Let's Recall (Page 92)
Do you remember studying about the Silk Route in Grade 7? How was India connected with it? Can you recollect China's contact with India with reference to Buddhism?
Answer
The Silk Route was a network of land routes linking China with Central Asia, India, West Asia and Europe. India was connected through branches passing through the north-west (Gandhara, Taxila and Kashmir) to Central Asia, and through sea routes from its ports. Indian traders exchanged spices, cotton textiles, gems and ivory for Chinese silk. Buddhism spread from India to China along these routes; Buddhist monks carried texts to China, and Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian (Fa-Hien) and Xuanzang travelled to India to study at centres like Nalanda and collect Buddhist texts.
Questions and activities
Do you think life became easier or more challenging after humans started farming? Give two reasons for your answer.
Answer
Life became easier in some ways and more challenging in others.
Easier: (i) Farming produced surplus food that could be stored in granaries, giving more food security than hunting and gathering. (ii) Settled life allowed permanent houses, pottery and crafts, and the growth of villages and towns.
More challenging: (i) Farming needed hard, continuous labour – clearing land, sowing, watering, protecting and harvesting. (ii) People became dependent on rain and rivers, so droughts, floods and crop diseases could cause famine; living close to animals and in crowded villages also spread disease.
On balance, farming made life more secure and laid the foundation of civilisation, though it demanded more work.
The environment offers human societies both opportunities as well as challenges. Explain with reference to early farming communities and river-valley civilisations.
Answer
Opportunities
(i) Warmer climate after about 12000 years ago expanded forests and grasslands, offering fish, small game and wild grains.
(ii) Rivers like the Sindhu, Sarasvatī, Tigris, Euphrates, Nile and Huang He provided water and fertile alluvial soil for surplus crops.
(iii) Rivers served as routes for trade and transport; the Nile floods even helped Egyptians create a calendar.
Challenges
(i) Floods could destroy fields and homes, and droughts could cause famine.
(ii) People had to build dams, canals and gabarbands (check dams), as the Sumerians and Early Harappans did, needing collective effort.
(iii) Environmental degradation and pressure on farmland weakened the Babylonians.
Thus societies prospered by adapting to their environment through technology and cooperation.
Why do historians divide early human history into different ages such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age? What does this classification tell us about human progress?
Answer
Historians divide early history into ages based on technological progress – the main material used for tools – along with changes in lifestyle and settlement, because there are no written records for most of this period. The Stone Age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) used stone tools, the Chalcolithic added copper, the Bronze Age used bronze (copper and tin), and the Iron Age used iron. This classification shows that human progress was gradual and cumulative: better tools led to better food production, surplus, trade, towns, writing and more complex societies.
Imagine you are a Neolithic farmer. Describe one day of your life. What challenges would you face that a hunter-gatherer would not?
Answer
Sample answer: I wake at dawn in my sun-dried mud-brick house in a village like Mehrgarh. After a meal of barley porridge, I take our sheep and goats out to graze and check on our humped cattle. With my polished stone axe and sickle, I work in the wheat field, removing weeds and guarding the crop from birds and wild animals. My family grinds grain on a grinding stone and stores the harvest in clay pots and granaries. In the evening, we repair the house, make pottery and share news with neighbours.
Challenges a hunter-gatherer would not face: worrying about rain and floods for my crops; protecting stored grain from rats, thieves and rot; the long, repeated labour of tending fields and animals; staying in one place even when food is scarce; and diseases spreading in crowded villages and from animals.
Imagine that the Harappan script gets deciphered tomorrow. What new types of information do you think historians might learn?
Answer
Historians might learn: (i) the language the Harappans spoke and its links to later Indian languages; (ii) names of rulers, officials, merchants and cities; (iii) how the cities were governed and who controlled them; (iv) the meaning of seals – whether they marked ownership, trade goods or authority; (v) details of trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha) and other regions; (vi) their religious beliefs, gods and rituals; (vii) laws, taxes and social organisation; and (viii) possible reasons for the decline of the civilisation.
Prepare a table with three columns—Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic—and fill in their distinctive features: tools, settlements, art, and subsistence.
Answer
Feature | Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) | Mesolithic | Neolithic (New Stone Age) |
|---|---|---|---|
Tools | Large tools: handaxes, cleavers, choppers, scrapers; later borers, points, blades, bow and arrow, burins | Microliths (tiny stone tools) fixed in handles | Polished stone tools for food production and processing (axes, grinding stones); pottery |
Settlements | Caves, rock shelters and open camps; moved in search of food | Caves and rock shelters frequently occupied; temporary settlements near rivers and lakes | Permanent villages with mud-brick houses and granaries (e.g., Mehrgarh) |
Art | Upper Palaeolithic: cave paintings, body pigments, beads of stone, bone and shell, engravings on ostrich eggs | Art flourished; rock paintings, e.g., Bhimbetka | Painted pottery, ornaments of lapis lazuli, carnelian and shell |
Subsistence | Hunting animals and gathering plants and tubers | Hunting small game, gathering, and fishing as the mainstay | Farming (wheat, barley, millets, rice) and herding cattle, sheep and goats |
"Bronze Age civilisations developed independently but shared common features." Examine this statement with reference to the civilisations given in the chapter.
Answer
Developed independently: The Harappan, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese civilisations each grew from their own local Neolithic and Chalcolithic roots, at different times – Mesopotamian cities from 3500 BCE, Egyptian city-states around 3000 BCE, Mature Harappan from 2600 BCE and Chinese urban centres around 1600 BCE. Each had its own script (Sindhu lipi, cuneiform, hieroglyphs, Chinese logographic script) and distinct culture.
Common features
(i) All emerged in fertile river plains – Sindhu–Sarasvatī, Tigris–Euphrates, Nile and Huang He.
(ii) All used bronze metallurgy and produced agricultural surplus.
(iii) All had cities, crafts and trade.
(iv) All developed writing to record transactions and ideas.
(v) All had social hierarchies and administrative systems – kings, priests, officials, farmers and labourers.
(vi) All built monumental structures: Harappan citadels and dockyards, ziggurats, pyramids, and later the Great Wall.
So the statement is correct: similar conditions led to similar solutions, even without direct contact.
Although rivers provided many benefits, they also created challenges for early societies. Discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of settling near rivers.
Answer
Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|
Regular water for drinking, irrigation and animals | Floods could destroy crops, houses and lives |
Fertile alluvial soil left by floods (e.g., Egypt's 'kemet') gave surplus crops | Changes in river course or drying up (like the Sarasvatī) could ruin settlements |
Fish and other food resources | Need for huge collective labour to build dams, canals and embankments |
Easy transport and trade by boats | Waterborne diseases and pests near stagnant water |
Flood cycles helped create calendars (Egypt) | Rich river lands attracted invaders and conflicts |
With the help of your teacher, find out more about the Code of Hammurabi. Why was it important? Do you think it was fair to all sections of society? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer
The Code of Hammurabi was a set of rules for civil and social conduct compiled by King Hammurabi of Babylon, who rose to power in 1792 BCE. It was inscribed in cuneiform on a stone stele showing him receiving the law from Shamash, the god of justice. It had about 282 laws on trade, property, wages, family, theft and injury.
Importance: It was one of the earliest written law codes, applied throughout his empire so that everyone knew the rules; it aimed to protect the weak and became a foundational model for many later legal systems.
Was it fair? Only partly. It gave written, uniform laws, but punishments depended on social class: harming a noble was punished more harshly than harming a commoner or a slave, and slaves had few rights. Punishments were also very harsh, based on 'an eye for an eye'. So it was fairer than having no written laws, but not equal for all sections of society.
If you had to choose one major innovation from early civilisations that changed the world permanently, what would it be and why?
Answer
Sample answer: I would choose writing. The Sumerians began writing (cuneiform) around 3200 BCE, and other civilisations developed their own scripts. Writing allowed people to record trade, taxes and laws (like the Code of Hammurabi), preserve stories and knowledge, and pass them on accurately across generations and distances. It marks the beginning of the historical period, and almost everything today – education, government, science and communication – depends on it. (Other acceptable choices: the wheel, agriculture, metallurgy, the calendar, or the 60-based system of time.)
Compare the social hierarchy and daily life of people in the Egyptian civilisation with those in Mesopotamia or China. What similarities and differences do you notice?
Answer
Aspect | Egypt | Mesopotamia | China |
|---|---|---|---|
Top of society | Pharaoh, believed to be divine | Kings in grand palaces; high priests and priestesses | Ruling class; Zhou rulers were kings and priests, appointed by heaven but could be dismissed if people did not prosper |
Middle | Officials, nobles, priests; then landholders, artisans, merchants | Scribes (high status), merchants, craftspeople | Nobles and aristocrats; officials chosen by examination |
Bottom | Serfs and slaves | Farm workers and labourers | Farmers and labourers |
Daily life | Farming by the Nile; leisure like swimming, canoeing, board games, music; festivals like Sed | Farming, crafts (metal, pottery, textiles); life centred on the temple (ziggurat) | Farming, bronze and jade crafts, silk; oracle bones used to foretell the future |
Similarities: All were hierarchical, with a ruler linked to religion at the top and farmers and labourers at the bottom; most people were farmers, and religion shaped daily life.
Differences: The pharaoh was seen as divine; Mesopotamian life centred on city temples; Chinese rulers could lose the mandate of heaven, and officials were chosen through examinations. Egyptian women enjoyed comparatively more rights, such as owning property and running businesses.
Activity: Using maps, locate the major rivers and civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Valley. Mark the trade links between them.
Answer
Guidance: On an outline map of the world (Africa and Asia):
(i) Mark the Nile and sites like Giza and Memphis (Egypt).
(ii) Mark the Tigris and Euphrates with Ur, Uruk, Babylon and Assur (Mesopotamia).
(iii) Mark the Sindhu (Indus) and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī with Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira and Lothal.
(iv) Mark the Huang He and Yangtze (China).
(v) Draw trade links: Harappan sites (Meluhha) to Mesopotamia via the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, passing Magan (Oman) and Dilmun (Bahrain), with goods like beads, ivory, timber, gold dust and copper. Show the later Silk Route from China through Central Asia to India and West Asia. Add a legend and title.
Activity: Choose one early civilisation (Mesopotamia, Egypt, or China) and prepare a mini-scrapbook or a presentation showing their innovations in tools, writing, art, and architecture. Include pictures, brief descriptions, and explain their significance.
Answer
Sample outline – Mesopotamia:
(i) Tools and technology: Copper tools from about 4500 BCE, the wheeled cart and sailboat; dams and canals for irrigation – improved farming and transport.
(ii) Writing: Cuneiform from about 3200 BCE on clay tablets – recorded laws, trade and epics like Gilgamesh.
(iii) Mathematics: Number system based on 60, giving the 60-minute hour, 60-second minute and 360-degree circle – still used today.
(iv) Art: Decorated boxes showing scenes of daily life, seals and the stele of Hammurabi.
(v) Architecture: Mud-brick and burnt-brick buildings and ziggurats – temples at the centre of city life.
(vi) Law: Code of Hammurabi – a model for later legal systems.
Each page should have a picture, a short description and a line on why it matters today.
Extra Important Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The first hominin to move out of Africa was
(a) Homo habilis (b) Homo erectus (c) Homo neanderthalensis (d) Homo sapiens
Answer: (b) Homo erectus
Attirampakkam, one of the oldest Palaeolithic sites in India, is located in:
Answer
(a) Karnataka (b) Madhya Pradesh (c) Tamil Nadu (d) Gujarat
Answer: (c) Tamil Nadu
The oldest Neolithic site and earliest agricultural village in the Indian subcontinent is:
Answer
(a) Bhimbetka (b) Mehrgarh (c) Kalibangan (d) Isampur
Answer: (b) Mehrgarh
4. In Mesopotamian records, Meluhha is generally identified with
(a) Bahrain (b) Oman (c) Egypt (d) The Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation
Answer: (d) The Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation
5. The Egyptian script was deciphered in 1822 by
(a) Pierre Bouchard (b) Herodotus (c) Jean-François Champollion (d) Hammurabi
Answer: (c) Jean-François Champollion
6. The name 'China' probably comes from the
(a) Shang dynasty (b) Zhou dynasty (c) Qin dynasty (d) Han dynasty
Answer: (c) Qin (Ch'in) dynasty
Short Answer Questions
Distinguish between biological evolution and cultural evolution.
Answer
Biological evolution refers to the gradual physical and genetic changes through which our early ancestors, the australopithecines, evolved into modern humans (Homo sapiens). Cultural evolution explains how humans adapted to their surroundings during the Quaternary Period (the last 26 lakh years) by developing tools, techniques and technology to use natural resources.
What evidence shows that the Early Harappans practised double cropping?
Answer
A ploughed field found at Kalibangan shows horizontal and vertical furrows criss-crossing each other. This indicates the cultivation of two crops, similar to the seasonal Rabi and Kharif crops grown even today, showing a tradition nearly 5,000 years old.
What was a ziggurat? Why was it important in Sumerian cities?
Answer
A ziggurat was a tower-like, stepped, pyramid-shaped temple with several floors, with the main temple at the top. Each city built one for its chief god and grew around it. Agriculture, trade and transport of goods were tied to the temple authority, and it also served as the city's treasury, with palaces and royal storehouses around it.
Answer
How did oracle bones help us learn about early China?
Oracles were symbols carved on animal bones and tortoise shells, which were heated until they cracked; the crack patterns were interpreted to foretell the future. They are the earliest source of information about China and tell us about the hopes, desires and fears of the early Chinese.
Long Answer Questions
Describe the features of the Neolithic culture at Mehrgarh and explain how it led to the Harappan civilisation.
(i) Mehrgarh, on the Bolan River in present-day Pakistan, is the oldest Neolithic site and earliest agricultural village of the subcontinent, dating to about 7000 BCE.
(ii) People built handmade sun-dried brick houses and granaries and buried their dead in graves.
(iii) They made ornaments of lapis lazuli, carnelian and shells.
(iv) They grew wheat and barley and raised sheep, goats and Indian cattle, especially the humped zebu.
(v) They were the first to make copper objects, becoming Chalcolithic by about 4000 BCE.
Answer
(vi) Link to Harappan civilisation: This way of life spread to the Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī plains. Copper tools increased productivity, and regional styles of pottery, beads, shell bangles and copper work developed in the Early Harappan stage. Perimeter walls, seals and early script also began then. These technological advances and economic integration led to the Bronze Age Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation, whose urban phase emerged by 2600 BCE.
Describe the main contributions of the Sumerians and Babylonians to world civilisation.
Answer
Sumerians
(i) First to build dams and canals for irrigation.
(ii) First to use mud bricks and burnt bricks for houses and walls.
(iii) First to write, around 3200 BCE, using cuneiform on clay tablets; by 3000 BCE it was used all over Mesopotamia.
(iv) Invented the wheeled cart and sailboat.
(v) Developed a number system based on 60, giving us the 60-minute hour, 60-second minute and the 360-degree circle.
(vi) Built ziggurats as centres of city life.
Babylonians
(i) Babylonia rose from 1900 BCE; Hammurabi, from 1792 BCE, expanded it into a large empire.
(ii) The Code of Hammurabi compiled rules for civil and social conduct throughout the empire and became a foundational model for later legal systems.