NCERT Solutions Class 9 Social Science (Understanding Society: India and Beyond, Part I) Chapter 5 – State and Society up to 1000 CE
Circle of Learning • New NCERT textbook (2026-27) • In-text questions, activities and end-of-chapter questions – complete answers
The Big Questions
How did society and state organise themselves prior to 1000 CE?
Answer
Society was organised through families (kula), villages (grāma), clans (jana), varṇa and jāti, the four āśhramas and shared customs. The state grew from kin-based janas led by a rājā with assemblies (sabhā, samiti, vidhata) into janapadas, mahājanapadas and empires (Mauryas, Guptas, Cholas). Empires were run through a king, a council of ministers and divisions into provinces, districts and largely self-governing villages.
How did states and societies emerge and spread to different parts of the Indian subcontinent?
Answer
Vedic society began in the Sapta-Sindhu region. Between about 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, kin-based janas became territorial janapadas; the use of iron, paddy cultivation and surplus in the Ganga plains led to sixteen mahājanapadas, of which Magadha grew into the Mauryan Empire. In the Deccan the Satavāhanas, and in the south the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras, rose, followed by the Pallavas, Chālukyas, Pālas, Rāṣhṭrakūṭas, Gurjara-Pratihāras and imperial Cholas. Trade routes such as Uttarāpatha and Dakṣhiṇāpatha connected these regions.
How did the ideas of dharma and chakravarti samrāṭ help create unity in social values and governance, and promote the idea of the Indian subcontinent as one political entity?
Answer
Dharma – duty, righteousness and moral conduct – gave common ethical values to rulers and people across regions; kings were expected to protect people and give justice. The ideal of the chakravarti samrāṭ (universal ruler), with terms like Jambudvīpa, Bhāratavarṣha, Prithivi ('the area between the Himalayas and the sea') and rituals like the aśhvamedha and rājasūya, made rulers think of the whole subcontinent as one political space. Examples include Aśhoka's references to Jambudvīpa, the Chera king Nedunjeral Adan's claim of conquests up to the Himalayas, and the Chola Rajendra I's title Gangaikonda.
How did different social, administrative, and occupational groups take shape over time and come together culturally?
Answer
Social identity was first shaped by occupation, region, kinship and language; the four varṇas were functional categories, and jātis multiplied through intermarriage, endogamous migrating groups and new occupations. Guilds organised artisans and traders, and administrators formed a class of officials. These groups were linked through trade, temples, shared festivals, education, Bhakti and common ethical ideas like dharma.
Let's Explore (Follow the Timeline)
As you read the chapter, follow the timeline at the bottom of each page. Think about which event interests you the most and why. By the end of the chapter, share one event you would like to explore further and document: 1. What happened? 2. When did it happen? 3. Why do you think it matters?
Answer
Sample answer – Establishment of Nalanda university:
1. What happened? A great centre of higher learning was set up at Nālandā in present-day Bihar, attracting students and scholars from India and other countries.
2. When? 427 CE, during the Gupta period (as shown on the chapter's timeline).
3. Why it matters: It shows India's long tradition of learning in subjects like philosophy, grammar, medicine and astronomy, and India's role as a centre of knowledge connecting Asia. Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (629–645 CE) studied there.
Let's Recall (Bharata Jana)
The name 'Bharata' first appears in the Ṛigveda in reference to the 'Bharata jana', or the people who were ruled by the family of the Bharatas. What does this tell us about how early communities identified themselves and their rulers?
Answer
It shows that early communities identified themselves mainly through kinship – as members of a jana (clan) – and through the ruling family that led them, rather than through a fixed territory. The ruler and the people shared one collective name and identity. Over time this clan name grew into a wider identity, and 'Bhārata' became a name for the whole land.
Think About It (Rājā and Assemblies)
In modern democracies, heads of government exercise power but are bound by constitutions and parliaments. Do the roles of the rājā and the assemblies in Vedic times suggest a similar principle? Can we say that systems of governance in Indian history were guided by the idea of ensuring people's participation in the political process?
Answer
Yes, to an extent. The Vedic rājā was mainly a clan chief who led in war and protected people, but the sabhā (judicial body of select elites), samiti (larger assembly that represented the broader population and decided policy) and vidhata (popular gathering of the jana) discussed war and political matters. This shows that the ruler did not act alone and that people took part in decisions. The same idea continued in later periods – the council of ministers advised kings, district officers consulted bankers, traders and artisans, and Chola village assemblies were chosen through the Kudavolai system. However, these were not full democracies: the sabhā had select elites, and kingship was mostly hereditary.
Let's Analyse
In the first millennium BCE there are more settlements in the Ganga region, with evidence of iron implements, more grain varieties, PGW and later NBPW pottery, and expanding agriculture, especially paddy. Can you identify the crucial factors behind this change?
(i) Use of iron: Iron axes and ploughshares made it easier to clear the dense forests of the Ganga plains and plough the land.
(ii) Fertile land and water: The alluvial soil and good rainfall of the Ganga plains supported higher grain output and a greater variety of crops, especially paddy.
(iii) Surplus production: More food supported larger populations, craftspeople and traders, leading to more settlements and towns.
(iv) Trade and crafts: Refined pottery such as NBPW shows richer material culture and growing exchange.
(v) Political change: Territorial janapadas and mahājanapadas organised land, agriculture and trade routes.
Answer
Let's Recall (Kingdoms of Tamilakam)
This box recalls that the Cholas (tiger emblem), Cheras (bow) and Pandyas (fish) were the three crowned kings or "Vendar of Tamilakam", known mainly from Sangam literature (300 BCE–300 CE), and that they flourished in fertile rice-growing regions. It has no separate question.
Think About It (Duties of the King)
Texts such as the Mahābhārata and the Arthaśhāstra describe the king's duties as protecting people and ensuring justice. Why do you think it was important for rulers to protect people and ensure justice? What do these descriptions tell us about ideas of governance and the relationship between rulers and subjects during that period?
Answer
Protection and justice were essential for peace, order and prosperity: people could farm, trade and live safely only if they were protected from outside attacks and internal crime, and fair justice made people trust and accept the ruler. These descriptions show that kingship was seen as a duty and responsibility, not just a privilege. The ruler was expected to work for the welfare of all, judge the strong and the weak impartially (as in the Yajurveda coronation oath) and set an example (the Arthaśhāstra says officers follow an energetic king). There are even references to kings being elected or expelled, so royal power was not entirely absolute.
Let's Recall (Arthaśhāstra)
This box recalls that the Arthaśhāstra says "one wheel does not move the carriage", meaning effective governance needs cooperation and a well-organised administration – the king governs with a council of ministers (mantri-pariṣhad), not alone. It has no separate question.
Think About It (Junagadh Rock Inscription)
Why do you think different rulers chose to record their inscriptions on the same stone instead of a new one? Discuss your answers with your classmates.
(i) The rock already carried Aśhoka's edicts, so it was a famous, respected public place; adding their records linked later rulers to Aśhoka's prestige and gave them legitimacy.
(ii) It stood near Girnar on a busy route, so many people would see and read it.
Answer
(iii) The inscriptions of Rudradaman I and Skandagupta both concerned the nearby Sudarshana Lake, so recording its repair at the same spot was natural and showed continuity of care for public works.
(iv) A large, smooth, durable rock was a practical surface for long inscriptions.
Think About It (Administrative Divisions)
How would dividing a kingdom into provinces, districts, and villages have helped rulers manage their empires? What similarities can you identify between these administrative divisions and the system of governance in India today?
Answer
Dividing a large kingdom made administration manageable: officers at each level could collect revenue, maintain law and order, settle disputes and look after local needs without everything depending on the distant king. Local knowledge improved decisions, and villages could manage irrigation, roads and temples themselves.
Similarities today: India is divided into states (like bhuktis/manḍalams), districts (like viṣhayas/nāḍus), tehsils or taluks (like vithis/kūṛrams) and villages. District collectors resemble pradeśhikas and district officers, and gram panchayats with their committees resemble village assemblies and variyams.
Let's Explore (Ṛigveda Verse on Occupations)
What occupations are mentioned in the family described in the verse (Ṛigveda 9.112.3)? What does this indicate about the nature of occupations in Vedic society?
Answer
The verse mentions a poet (the speaker), a physician (the father) and a grinder of corn (the mother). Members of one family followed different occupations, which indicates that occupations in Vedic society were flexible and chosen by individuals, not strictly hereditary.
How does the above verse challenge the idea that social status and occupation were fixed by birth?
Answer
If occupation were fixed by birth, a son would follow his father's profession. Here the son is a poet while his father is a physician and his mother grinds corn. This shows that in early Vedic times, a person's work and status were not determined by birth, supporting the view that the varṇa system was originally functional.
What different occupations do you find in contemporary society?
Answer
Today people work as farmers, teachers, doctors, nurses, engineers, software developers, shopkeepers, drivers, electricians, plumbers, artists, journalists, soldiers, police officers, lawyers, bank employees, factory workers, entrepreneurs and many more. Children often choose occupations different from their parents.
Compare your group's responses with another group. Did all groups interpret the source in the same way? What does this tell us about how historians use evidence?
Answer
Sample conclusion: Groups agreed on the evidence (three occupations in one family) but differed in interpretation – some felt it proves complete occupational freedom, others felt one verse cannot describe the whole society. This shows that historians must separate evidence from interpretation, recognise the limits of a single source (it tells us about one family and nothing about rules for others), and compare it with other sources before reaching conclusions.
Let's Explore (Gurukula and School Life)
Compare your school life with the life of a student in a gurukula in early India. Think about daily routine, subjects studied, relationship with teachers, discipline, and living arrangements. What advantages and challenges do you think each system might have?
Answer
Aspect | Gurukula | Modern school |
|---|---|---|
Daily routine | Early rising, study, yoga and meditation, service to the guru, household duties | Fixed school hours, periods for subjects, homework, return home |
Subjects | Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, music, arts, archery | Languages, mathematics, science, social science, computers, arts, sports |
Teacher–student relationship | Very close; student lived as part of the teacher's family (guru-śhiṣhya paramparā) | More formal; many students per teacher |
Discipline | Strict self-control, obedience and devotion | School rules, uniforms, exams |
Living | Lived in the teacher's home | Live with own family |
Advantages and challenges: The gurukula gave personal attention, moral training and holistic education, but students lived away from family and access may have been limited. Modern schools reach many more students, offer varied subjects and recognised certificates, but can be exam-focused with less personal attention.
Let's Recall and Think About It (Irrigation)
Do you remember reading about the Grand Anicut (Kallanai) built by Karikala Chola?
Answer
Yes. The Grand Anicut (Kallanai) is an ancient dam built across the Kaveri River by the early Chola king Karikala. It diverted water into canals for irrigation in the fertile delta, was repaired by later rulers over centuries and remains in use even today.
Why do you think irrigational structures like dams and canals were considered so important that their construction was recorded in inscriptions?
Answer
Agriculture depended on irrigation, and land revenue from agriculture was one of the state's main sources of income. Building a dam or canal was a major public work that needed resources and planning, and it brought prosperity to many people. Recording it in inscriptions – like the Junagadh inscription about Sudarshana Lake – showed the ruler's care for public welfare, earned him fame and legitimacy, and preserved the memory of who built and repaired these works.
Let's Recall (Silappadikāram Routes)
This box recalls that the Silappadikāram mentions two routes in the Tamil region: Kanchipuram to the port of Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam), and Kanchipuram to Kanyakumari. It has no separate question.
Questions and activities
How did political organisation change from the Vedic period to the age of large empires such as the Mauryas and the Guptas? Explain the administrative system of the early Indian states.
Answer
Change in political organisation
(i) Vedic period: Kin-based janas (the Ṛigveda mentions about thirty, including the pañchajana) led by a rājā who was a clan chief and war leader, with assemblies – sabhā, samiti and vidhata.
(ii) c. 1000–600 BCE: Janas became territorial janapadas; identity shifted from kinship to land.
(iii) c. 600 BCE onwards: Sixteen mahājanapadas, both monarchies (rājyas) and republics (gaṇas or saṁghas); Magadha became the most powerful.
(iv) Empires: Magadha's expansion led to the Mauryan Empire (founded 321 BCE by Chandragupta Maurya) and later the Guptas (320–550 CE).
Administrative system: The king was supreme, advised by a council of ministers (mantri-pariṣhad) including the treasurer, chief tax collector, chief legal advisor and commander-in-chief. Kingdoms were divided into provinces, divisions and districts, with district governors (pradeśhikas) and city governors; villages were headed by a grāmika. From 300–800 CE, provinces were bhuktis (north) or manḍalams (south). Villages were largely self-governing.
Describe the role of the king, important officers, and the methods used to govern large territories.
Answer
(i) King: Protected subjects from external threats and internal disorder, administered justice, judged the strong and weak impartially and worked for people's welfare.
(ii) Officers: The council of ministers advised the king and could act in his absence (as an Aśhokan inscription shows). The Guptas had the mantri, commander-in-chief, general, chief of palace guards and a new minister of peace and war (sāndhivigrahika); kumārāmātyas worked at local and provincial levels.
(iii) Methods: Dividing the empire into provinces, districts, groups of villages and villages; consulting local leaders – the Gupta district office (Damodarpur copper plates) had the head district officer, chief banker, chief caravan trader, chief artisan and chief of revenue collection; self-governing village assemblies with committees (variyams) for irrigation, gardens and temples; land grants such as Brahmadeya villages and agrahārams; and inscriptions to communicate royal messages.
After studying this chapter, what do you think were the most important features of the state and society in India before 1000 CE?
(i) Gradual growth from clans to janapadas, mahājanapadas and large empires.
(ii) A pan-Indian political ideal – the chakravarti samrāṭ and terms like Jambudvīpa and Bhāratavarṣha.
(iii) Kingship guided by dharma, with councils of ministers and multi-level administration.
(iv) Strong, self-governing village assemblies, as seen in the Uttaramerur inscription.
(v) A society organised by varṇa and jāti but with considerable social and occupational mobility.
(vi) Respect for women in many periods, with women scholars, poets, regents and donors.
Answer
(vii) An agricultural economy supported by irrigation, with flourishing trade, ports and guilds.
(viii) A rich tradition of education and literature, and continuity of cultural traditions.
What do early texts such as the Ṛigveda, Arthaśhāstra, and the Mahābhārata reveal about political and social life?
Answer
(i) Ṛigveda: Kin-based janas led by a rājā, assemblies like the sabhā and samiti, the pañchajana and the Bharata jana; flexible occupations within families; women sages like Apālā, Ghoṣhā and Lopāmudrā; worship of nature deities; and the first mention of four varṇas in the Puruṣhasūkta.
(ii) Arthaśhāstra: A detailed treatise on statecraft – the seven constituents of the state (Saptāṁga), the importance of an active king and a council of ministers, land classification, one-sixth land tax, regulation of trade and salt, and the idea of Prithivi as the area between the Himalayas and the sea.
(iii) Mahābhārata: The Śhānti Parva guides rulers on ethics, justice and duties to subjects; it upholds samatva (sameness), criticises discrimination and defines dharma as "that which upholds beings".
What can we learn from early Indian society about varṇa and the role of women?
Answer
Varṇa: Early Vedic texts show no fixed status based on birth; identity depended on occupation, region, gotra and language. The four varṇas – brāhmaṇas, kṣhatriyas, vaiśhyas and śhūdras – were functional categories linked to tasks, and the Sutta Nipāta says one is a brāhmaṇa by deeds, not birth. Over time this flexibility reduced, and jātis multiplied, though social mobility continued (rulers like the Mauryas and Guptas came from diverse backgrounds).
Women: In the Vedic period women studied, took part in rituals, chariot races and the sabhā, and composed hymns. Later, their position fluctuated and even declined, but women continued to contribute: Prabhāvatī Gupta ruled as regent and issued land grants, women were donors in votive inscriptions, Sangam women worked in agriculture, fishing and salt production, poetesses like Avvaiyar were celebrated, and Sembiyan Mahādevī supported temple building.
Explain how assemblies like sabhā and samiti limited the power of the rājā. Which modern institutions perform similar functions today?
Answer
The rājā had to consult these assemblies. The sabhā, a smaller body of select elites, performed judicial functions, so justice did not depend on the king alone. The samiti, a larger assembly representing the broader population, decided on policy and political affairs, and the vidhata was a forum for discussing war and other matters. Because the rājā needed their support, he could not act arbitrarily. Today, Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha), state legislative assemblies, the judiciary, the Council of Ministers and gram sabhas or panchayats perform similar functions of checking executive power and representing people.
What do the terms varṇa and jāti refer to in early Indian society? How were they different, and what factors may have contributed to the formation of various jātis?
Answer
Varṇa refers to the four broad social categories – brāhmaṇas, kṣhatriyas, vaiśhyas and śhūdras – first mentioned in the Puruṣhasūkta, associated with functions such as learning, protection, economic activity and service. Jāti refers to the many smaller social groups that emerged later, often linked to occupation, region and endogamy.
Differences: The number of varṇas was fixed at four, while there was no limit on the number of jātis, which kept growing as new groups and occupations developed.
Factors for jāti formation: intermarriage among varṇas, migrating communities becoming endogamous (marrying within their group), territorial differences, and the rise of new occupations.
Why do you think education in early India emphasised both knowledge and moral values? How might this have benefited society?
Answer
Education aimed to prepare students for the whole of life, not just a career. Good character and moral conduct were seen as the foundation of society, so students learnt truth, patience, humility, self-control and reverence for all beings along with the Vedas, grammar, logic, mathematics, medicine, astronomy, arts and archery. Students were trained to live by dharma and fulfil their duties to parents, teachers and society. This produced skilled and responsible citizens, honest rulers and officials, respect for elders and nature, and social harmony; it also preserved knowledge traditions despite political changes.
Look at the major trade routes of early India (Fig. 5.12). How do you think these routes helped people in the exchange of goods, skills, beliefs, and cultural practices?
Answer
(i) Goods: Uttarāpatha (northern route through Takṣhaśhilā, Mathurā and Pāṭaliputra) and Dakṣhiṇāpatha (to the Deccan via Ujjayinī and Pratiṣhṭhāna) carried textiles, gems, coral, pearls, metals, salt and spices, and linked inland towns to ports like Muziris, Arikameḍu, Kāveripaṭṭinam and Tāmralipti for trade with Rome and other regions.
(ii) Skills: Artisans and guilds moved along routes, like the silk weavers who migrated from Lata to Dashapura.
(iii) Beliefs: Buddhist and Jain monks, pilgrims and scholars travelled along them, spreading ideas and building monasteries.
(iv) Culture: Languages, art styles, festivals and food habits spread between regions, helping integrate the subcontinent culturally.
What might have been the advantages and challenges of ruling a large empire in the absence of modern communication systems?
Answer
Advantages: Large resources from land revenue and trade; a bigger army; control of trade routes and ports; and local self-government in villages, which reduced the burden on the central government.
Challenges: Orders and news travelled slowly by messengers, so rulers could not respond quickly to revolts, invasions or famines; it was hard to supervise distant governors, who might become independent; collecting taxes and maintaining law and order over long distances was difficult. This is why rulers depended on provinces, trusted officers, councils that could act in the king's absence, and inscriptions placed across the empire to communicate their messages.
Many ideas about governance come from texts composed by scholars and advisors of the king. What might be some limitations of relying only on such sources?
(i) They often describe ideals – how a king should rule – rather than how rulers actually behaved.
(ii) They were written from the viewpoint of the ruling elite and may ignore the experiences of ordinary farmers, artisans, women and labourers.
(iii) Some may exaggerate the king's achievements or serve to justify his power.
(iv) Their dates and regions may be uncertain, so they may not apply to all of India.
Answer
Historians therefore compare them with inscriptions, coins, archaeological remains and accounts of travellers like Faxian and Xuanzang.
Read the source (Nāśhik cave inscription of Uṣhavadāta, 2nd century CE) and answer the questions:
Answer
a. What does this source tell us about the economic role of guilds?
Answer
b. Why were guilds trusted with money deposits?
c. Identify the donor and the donees from the given source.
a. Guilds acted like banks. They accepted large deposits (2000 kāhāpaṇas in one weavers' guild and 1000 in another at Govadhana) and paid a fixed monthly interest – one pratika per hundred in one case and three-quarters of a paḍika per hundred in the other – which was used to support the monks. So guilds were banking and credit institutions, not just associations of craftspeople.
b. Guilds were well-established, organised and respected bodies with steady income from their trade, and they regulated their members through guild courts. They were stable and long-lasting, so donors trusted them to keep money safe and pay interest permanently ('perpetual endowment').
c. Donor: Uṣhavadāta, son of Dinika and son-in-law of King Nahapāna. Donees: The Saṁgha – Buddhist monks of any sect and any origin dwelling in the cave, who received the cave and money for cloth and other needs.
Mark and locate on the map of India the following important centres: Pāṭaliputra, Nāśhik, Ujjayinī, Vikramśhila, Kānchipuram, Mathurā, Rājgṛiha.
Answer
Centre | Present location | Importance |
|---|---|---|
Pāṭaliputra | Patna, Bihar, on the Ganga | Capital of Magadha and the Mauryan Empire |
Nāśhik | Nashik, Maharashtra, on the Godavari | Buddhist caves and inscriptions of Uṣhavadāta |
Ujjayinī | Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh | Capital of Avanti; trade and learning centre on Dakṣhiṇāpatha |
Vikramśhila | Bhagalpur district, Bihar | University founded under the Pālas (783–820 CE) |
Kānchipuram | Tamil Nadu | Pallava capital and centre of learning |
Mathurā | Uttar Pradesh, on the Yamuna | Trade, textile and art centre |
Rājgṛiha | Rajgir, Bihar | Early capital of Magadha |
Students should mark these with dots and names on an outline map of India.
Prepare a short presentation or poster on one of the following – a. Life in the Vedic society b. Early education system (gurukula) c. Trade and guilds in early India d. Role of women in early Indian society
Answer
Sample poster outline – c. Trade and guilds in early India:
(i) Trade routes: Uttarāpatha and Dakṣhiṇāpatha from about the 6th century BCE, linking inland cities to ports.
(ii) Ports: Muziris, Kāveripaṭṭinam, Arikameḍu, Masulipaṭnam; trade with Rome by the early centuries CE.
(iii) Goods: Textiles (silk, cotton, wool, linen from Mathurā, Kāśhī, Kāmarūpa), gems, pearls, coral, metals, spices.
(iv) Guilds (śhreṇīs): 18 types mentioned in Jātakas; regulated quality and prices; guild courts; acted as banks (Nāśhik inscription).
(v) Coins: Silver punch-marked coins.
(vi) Patronage: Ivory workers' guild of Vidiśhā carved sculptures at the Sanchi stūpa.
Add a map of routes and pictures of coins and the Sanchi gateway.
Extra Important Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The pañchajana of the Ṛigveda did NOT include
(a) Yadu (b) Puru (c) Bharata (d) Anu
Answer: (c) Bharata
Which mahājanapada emerged as the most powerful?
Answer
(a) Kosala (b) Avanti (c) Magadha (d) Vatsa
Answer: (c) Magadha
The 'minister of peace and war' (sāndhivigrahika) was introduced during the:
Answer
(a) Mauryan period (b) Gupta period (c) Chola period (d) Vedic period
Answer: (b) Gupta period
4. The Kudavolai system of village elections is described in the
(a) Junagadh inscription (b) Nāśhik inscription (c) Uttaramerur inscription (d) Mandsaur inscription
Answer: (c) Uttaramerur inscription
5. The basic land tax in the Mauryan period was generally
(a) One-fourth (b) One-sixth (c) One-third (d) One-half
Answer: (b) One-sixth of the produce
6. The twelve Vaiṣhṇava saint-poets of the Tamil region were the
(a) Nāyanmārs (b) Āḻvārs (c) Śhramaṇas (d) Antanars
Answer: (b) Āḻvārs
Short Answer Questions
Name Kauṭilya's seven constituents (Saptāṁga) of the state.
Answer
The seven constituents are the king (swāmi), the ministers (amātya), the territory with its population (janapada), the forts or fortified towns (durga), the treasury (koṣha), the army or forces of defence and law and order (daṇḍa), and the allies (mitra). The state functions effectively only if these remain properly integrated.
Answer
Why is the Junagadh rock inscription considered unique?
It bears records of three rulers from different periods: Aśhoka's Major Rock Edicts in Prakrit (3rd century BCE), Rudradaman I's Sanskrit inscription (c. 150 CE) about his achievements and the repair of Sudarshana Lake, and Skandagupta's record (5th century CE) on the lake's restoration. It spans about 700 years and gives information on administration and public works.
Answer
What were the four puruṣhārthas?
The four goals of life were dharma (righteousness), artha (material well-being), kāma (fulfilment of desires) and mokṣha (liberation from worldly ties). Dharma and mokṣha were ethically most significant; for example, wealth was desirable only when guided by dharma and the welfare of society.
What does the Mandsaur Stone Inscription (473 CE) tell us about social mobility?
Answer
It mentions a guild of silk weavers who migrated from Lata in Gujarat to Dashapura in Madhya Pradesh during the Gupta period. The guild members were skilled not only in weaving but also in archery, astrology and other occupations, showing that people could change places and occupations.
Long Answer Questions
Describe the system of village administration under the imperial Cholas.
(i) The Chola empire (9th–11th century CE) was divided into manḍalams (provinces), valanāḍus (districts), nāḍus (groups of villages) and Urs (villages).
(ii) The village was the smallest unit, and village councils or assemblies settled disputes and managed local affairs.
(iii) Assemblies handled revenue collection, land management, irrigation, road construction and record maintenance; they were independent and self-reliant.
Answer
(iv) The Uttaramerur inscription of Parantaka I (10th century), in the Vaikunṭha Perumal Temple, describes the Kudavolai (ballot pot) system: names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaves, put in a pot, and drawn by a young child in public, often at a temple.
(v) Candidates had to have "honest earnings" and be "pure" of mind.
(vi) Elected members formed committees (variyams) for irrigation (tank committee), justice and taxes.
Explain the role of guilds in the economy of early India.
(i) Guilds (śhreṇīs) were associations of traders, artisans and merchants in the same profession; the Jātakas mention eighteen types.
(ii) They grew in importance after the rise of mahājanapadas in the 6th century BCE, along with silver punch-marked coins.
(iii) They regulated the quality of goods and fixed prices to protect artisans and consumers.
(iv) Guild courts supervised members' conduct and enforced standards.
(v) They acted as banks, financiers and trustees – the Nāśhik inscription records deposits with weavers' guilds earning fixed interest to maintain Buddhist monasteries.
(vi) They supported art and religion – the ivory workers' guild of Vidiśhā carved sculptures at the Sanchi stūpa.
Answer
(vii) They also show mobility, like the silk weavers' guild that moved from Lata to Dashapura.